Guanches

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The Guanches were the first known inhabitants of the Canary Island of Tenerife . The oldest finds of human settlements on Tenerife date from the 10th century BC. At the latest from the 1st century BC. There were close ties between the Canary Islands and the Mediterranean region , which broke off in the 3rd or 4th century AD. It is assumed that the Guanches lived in isolation from the 4th century AD without contact with the old Canaries on the other islands or the mainland. In the roughly 1000 years until the islands were rediscovered by Europeans in the late Middle Agesan independent culture developed on Tenerife. With the conquest of the Canary Islands and the integration of the population into the culture of the kingdoms of the Crown of Castile in the 15th century, the Guanches were wiped out as an independent ethnic group .

The term guanches

Various historical sources from the time after the conquest state that the indigenous people of the island of Tenerife referred to themselves as "Guanches", "Guachinec" or "Guachinet", which should have meant something like "Person of Tenerife". This derivation of the name is not undisputed. The term Guanches as a name for the indigenous people of all Canary Islands is widely used. In ethnology and modern history it is only used for the inhabitants of the island of Tenerife . The collective term guanches for all old Canarians downplayed the serious cultural differences that existed between the populations of the individual islands.

origin

Archaeological finds suggest that the Phoenicians / Punians began around the middle of the first millennium BC. When colonies were founded on the Atlantic coast, they brought the first settlers from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Canary Islands. The settlement was not a one-off activity, but a continuous process that extended to all islands for a long time. Archaeological finds suggest that settlement on the islands was increased under the rule of the Romans. Between the 1st century BC BC and the 3rd century AD there were close economic ties between the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands. These connections were broken at the latest in the 4th century AD. Since the Guanches, like the other Old Canarians, had no knowledge of shipbuilding and nautical science , an isolated culture developed on the island of Tenerife.

Appearance and language of the Guanches

There are some accounts of the Canary Islands from the late Middle Ages. These contradict each other z. Sometimes strong in the information about the appearance of the natives. In the second half of the 19th century, the question began to be answered using scientific methods. But here, too, there was no clear picture, mostly because of the insufficient number of cases or because of false conclusions. Today's findings are: The mean height of men was between 165 cm and 171 cm, that of women between 157 and 160. This means that the Guanches were slightly larger than the Castilians of that time. The view, particularly held in the 19th century, that the Guanches had blonde hair, is attributed to the mummies examined at the time, in which the pigments in the hair had changed after death. Today it is assumed that around 10–20% of the Guanches had light eyes and, immediately after birth, lighter hair and a lighter complexion than the Castilians.

The Guanche language is preserved through some place names and names for endemic plants. It was fundamentally different from the languages ​​spoken by the ancient Canaries on the other islands.

society

At the time of the conquest at the end of the 15th century, there were about 36,000 inhabitants on the island of Tenerife. The island was divided into nine politically-administratively and spatially separate, independent districts, which are known as Menceyatos. This division only existed since the end of the 14th century.

The top of the hierarchical order was the mencey . He was the highest authority in all questions of administration, warfare and religion. The mencey owned the land that it redistributed annually. The Mencey of Taoro regulated the grazing rights in the pasture areas in the mountains used by everyone.

It is not known whether the Guanches had a chief priest. However, there is evidence that a person called a "guañameñe" interpreted the will of the gods and predicted future events. The nobility included on the one hand the close family members of the Mencey (the Archimencey) and the tribal chiefs, who were the heads of a family association. Because of their origin, they were members of the council assembly (Tagoro). Other people belonged to the congregation because of their age or because of personal merit. The Tagoro advised the Mencey on issues relating to government or jurisdiction. Most of the population was dependent on these people, as only they owned herds.

religion

Guatimac, Archaeological Museum of Puerto de la Cruz ( Tenerife ).

The religion of the Guanches is a recurring topic of historical research in the Canary Islands. But it is also the subject of pseudoscientific speculations and is at the center of the identification of certain local patriotic, political and religious groups.

The Guanches most likely worshiped the stars, especially the sun and moon, as gods. At least that's what the reports of contemporary seafarers say. Some petroglyphs , which apparently represent sun gears, confirm these findings. One can also assume that the stars were viewed as male or female. Belief in a single God presumably arose through contact with Christianity even before the conquest.

The way in which the deceased were treated and some traditional rites suggest that the worship of the ancestors had a special meaning among the Guanches. There were various places on the island where, according to the Guanches, the souls of the ancestors stayed. Rain rituals have been passed down, the addressees of which were the spirits of ancestors, who were believed to guide the path of clouds and rain.

In 1885, was in a cave in Fasnia one, burnt made of clay in the southeast of Tenerife anthropomorphic sculpture found. The figure, now called Guatimac , has a height of 6.05 cm, a width of 4.05 cm and a thickness of 0.73 cm in the middle. The idea that the object is the representation of a revered deity is largely rejected.

There is no evidence for the existence of religiously venerated works of art for the period before contact with Christianity. On the south side of the island there has been a wooden figure, probably brought to the island by Christian missionaries, since the beginning of the 15th century, which was venerated by the Guanches as Chaxiraxi , mother of the sun. The Roman Catholic Church later declared her the Virgin of Candelaria as the patron saint of the Canary Islands.

Diseases

Written sources from the time of the first contact between Europeans and Guanches give gastrointestinal inflammation as a common disease among the indigenous people. This disease often led to death, especially in the elderly. Today it is suspected that it could have been a bacterial disturbance. Histological studies of mummies suggest that deposits of carbon in the lungs were common and it appears that there was a direct connection with the inhalation of smoke in the living quarters. The same studies have identified the presence of atherosclerosis in various mummies from Tenerife . Osteoarthritis has been found in 40–50% of Guanches in various areas . A large number of skulls showing injuries have been found on the island of Tenerife. Not only is the frequency of head injuries striking, but the fact that around 90% of the people did not suffer from this injury.

Skulls of male adults were found showing traces of trepanation . As can be seen from the healed wound edges, many of those treated survived. Stone tools made of basalt were used for the operation. The outside diameter of the boreholes was 1.25 to 2.30 cm. Whether these trepanations had a magical meaning or were therapeutic measures cannot be clarified.

The Guanches' teeth were in poor condition. This is attributed to the fact that the gofio , one of the main foods, contained more or less fine stone components from the hand mills.

It cannot be ruled out that there were epidemics on Tenerife before the conquest . However, there are no clear indications of this. Only about the enormous epidemics , which were probably caused by pathogens introduced by the Europeans, are there reports, albeit partly unreliable.

funeral

Guanche mummy in the Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Tenerife)

The appropriate burial of their dead was evidently very important to the Guanches. During armed conflicts, the women followed their husbands onto the battlefield to attend to the burial in the event of death.

One of the most important aspects of the Guanche cult of the dead was the practice of preserving the body. This was done on dead children, women and men, depending on the social status of the dead. The more important the deceased was, the more thorough the procedure was. At the end of the conservation, the corpses were sewn into skins and buried in caves.

In Tenerife, all dead from the time before the conquest have so far been found in natural caves. References to burial mounds from the 16th to 18th centuries have not yet been confirmed by archaeological finds. The scientists also failed to find the great necropolis of the Guanches, which were also reported abroad during this period. The number of sites that are available for research without destruction and unchanged is very small. The guanches' burial caves differ greatly in their common features from the burial sites of the other ancient Canaries. The caves were uninhabited even before the burial and had difficult access with entrances that were narrow and protected. The caves contain one or more corpses. Caves with only one corpse are mainly found in the pasture areas that were visited in summer. But even in these areas there are burial sites for several dead, such as B. the necropolis of Llano de Maja in the Cañadas del Teide in the El Teide National Park . The openings of the caves were often made smaller with walls. The interior was designed in various ways, from simply covering the floor with stones to beds made of straw or worked wooden bier . It was important that the body did not come into direct contact with the ground, but was stored dry.

The grave goods found were, on the one hand, ceramic jugs with leftovers from food, and, on the other hand, objects that were used in everyday life, such as tools made of obsidian and basalt, as well as jewelry.

Dwellings

Most of the Guanches lived in natural caves that were on the edges of Barrancos. These caves were found on the north side of the island up to 300 m above sea level , on the south side up to 500–700 m. The large opening was made smaller by means of dry masonry. A family lived in the cave, which had a fireplace near the entrance.

Archaeologists found few cases of detached houses used as family dwellings. They had a round or oval floor plan and were made of stone without mortar and covered with a network of plants.

During their hike, the shepherds built huts for themselves, which were not intended as permanent homes, but were only used in summer.

economy

The archaeological finds show that the natives' diet consisted of collected plants, cultivated cereals and legumes, the products of animal husbandry, fish from catches near the beach, crustaceans and shellfish and game.

Collected plants

Various berries (e.g. those of the Canary Bellflower or the strawberry trees ) and fruits of the Mocán were collected. The roots of various ferns were dried and ground.

agriculture

Archaeological finds indicate that the Guanches systematically cultivated cereals and legumes. Barley, wheat and legumes must have brought the first inhabitants to the island. The soil was loosened before sowing. There is also evidence of irrigation ditches. Part of the harvest was set aside as seeds.

livestock farming

The Guanches developed an intensive animal husbandry . The animal population consisted of four species: The small sheep with smooth fur came from an older breed that is still found in North Africa today. There is no evidence that the sheep's wool was processed. The goat had a low shoulder height , a black or brown fur and short horns. The dogs fulfilled the function of guarding the herd and the house. But their meat was also eaten. The presence of pigs has been documented in communities that lived near the laurel forest . There the pigs found their food in the undergrowth.

The goats were of paramount importance to the Guanches. There were small flocks kept near the settlements under the care of women and children. They supplied the population with fresh milk. Large flocks were under the supervision of adult shepherds. They moved to higher pastures in the summer. These herds provided cheese, meat and hides. In addition, there were goats that lived almost wild in areas where there was not enough food for the normal herds. Some of these animals were caught once a year in order to keep their numbers constant.

fishing

Clam shells piles frequently found indicate that seafood, snails, and limpets were eaten. During the archaeological excavations, only remains of fish that live near the coast were found.

The catch was often carried out with fish fences (corrales). These were artificial, water-permeable stone walls that lay below the surface of the water at high tide and held back the fish when the water ran off. These were then paralyzed with milk from milkweed plants so that they could be better caught. Fish hooks made from bones were also used.

Wild

Except for birds, there were no hunted animals on the island of Tenerife.

Artifacts

Clay vessel in the Museo Arqueológico Puerto de la Cruz
Fired clay objects

Various types of clay pots were used as everyday objects. They were made using a construction technique without a potter's wheel and then fired. Vessels with a capacity of more than 15 liters were used to store and transport grain, fat and milk. Smaller pots with a capacity of one to three liters were used for daily food preparation. Some of these jugs had a spout. Other vessels had a handle. Some of these pottery were decorated with simple patterns.

The guatimac is a baked plastic made of clay . It is the only one of its kind found on the island of Tenerife. Scientists assume, however, that there were other objects.

Stone tools

Since there are no usable metal deposits in the Canary Islands, the ancient Canarians made a number of tools out of stone. Obsidians , the sharp edges of which were used as knives, are found in the Cañadas del Teide . Hand turning mills consisted of two parts, the upper stone had a central filling opening. He was turned over the lower stone. These mills were not only used to process roasted grain into Gofio , they were also used to grind dried roots. The angular stones that the Guanches used as projectiles in combat were not worked, but carefully selected.

Wood

For cultivating the fields, the Guanches used grave sticks that were sharpened at the end or reinforced with a goat horn. Similarly, the shepherds' rods, about two meters long, were reinforced with horn at the bottom and either thickened like a piston or forked at the top. The skewers of the guanches were very straight and smooth and had a thickening in the front third. The tip was hardened in the fire. A rod about six feet long, very carefully smoothed and probably greased, had a thickening at the top. He was considered the staff of a mencey. The stretchers with which the dead were brought to the burial caves were made of wood. The corpses of people in high positions were buried with the bier. It prevented the soil moisture from reaching the body. Some wooden vessels were found that were shaped like the smaller clay pots. The Guanches had no furniture made of wood.

Skins

The Guanches used goat and sheepskins for clothing. Because of the greater durability of the material, shoes were made from pigskin. It can be assumed that the indigenous peoples knew different techniques of fur processing. But it is still not known what they were. The skins were partially colored. These were vegetable colors that caused the fur to turn red or yellow. It has not yet been possible to determine the origin of the dyes. The fine grooves on tanned leather show that the meat side, but also the hair side, had been worked with stone tools. The garments were made from blanks that were sewn together with strips of leather or sinews . In order to enable the suture material to be pulled through, the skins or pieces of leather were pierced with an awl made of bone. The skins in which the dead were wrapped for burial were precisely cut and precisely sewn.

bone

When sewing pieces of hide and leather together, awls made from the bones of goats were used. To decorate the clay jugs, bones were used, the ends of which were sharpened to be pointed, flat or curved. Fishhooks carved and sharpened from bone have also been found.

Petroglyphs

The petroglyphs found on the island of Tenerife are divided into geometric, figurative and alphabetical based on their motifs. The geometric motifs show parallel and crossing lines as well as circles, rectangles and polygons.

On some petroglyphs one believes to be able to recognize representations of humans and animals. A special group are the foot representations , which were found in a similar way on other islands. At some sites where star symbols are apparently shown, there are small dug pits in the rock, which are connected by channels. These connections suggest that in these places, which were dedicated to the cult of the sun and moon, rites were celebrated during which liquids were spilled. Until 2014, there was only the site of Cabuquero (Aldea Blanca) on Tenerife, where rock inscriptions were found. The meaning of the signs is still unclear.

Destruction of the Guanche culture

In 1391 two Guanches found a carved wooden figure of a woman with a child on the beach of Chimisay on the south side of the island of Tenerife . This figure was probably placed there by missionaries. (The state of preservation of the wooden sculpture spoke against the version that it had been washed up by the sea.) Güímar's Mencey had this figure set up in a cave. The Guanches worshiped her as Chaxiraxi , the mother of the sun. The transition from the religion of the indigenous people to the Christian religion of the conquerors, with the worship of the figure as the Virgin of Candelaria , was thereby simplified.

Menceyatos at the time of the conquest

In the 15th century, the island of Tenerife was divided into nine menceyatos (domains), each of which was led by a mencey (head of the indigenous people). Between the Menceyes on the south side of the island and European seafarers there were always agreements on the establishment of trade bases and mission stations. Attempts to conquer the island of Tenerife since the 14th century were repulsed by the Guanches until the end of the 15th century. In 1494, Alonso Fernández de Lugo landed near the present-day city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The Menceyes of Güímar, Abona, Adeje and Anaga concluded treaties with the conqueror Alonso Fernández de Lugo , in which - even after the assumption of rule by the Crown of Castile - the freedom and property rights of the Guanches and especially the property rights to the herds were guaranteed. These Menceynatos were called "Reinos de paces" (Realms of Peace). The residents were promised that if they were baptized, led a Christian life and paid the usual taxes and duties, after the conquest of the island they would be treated in the same way as the other subjects of the kings of Castile. The Menceyatos on the north side of the island refused to sign submission contracts. The conquerors wanted to bring these "Reinos de guerra" (empires of war) under the government of the Crown of Castile by force. In May 1494, the invaders were defeated by the Guanches in the First Battle of Acentejo . The remnants of the invasion army had to retreat to Gran Canaria. In a new attempt at conquest by the troops, led by Alonso Fernandez de Lugo, the Castilians won the Battle of Aguere in November 1495 and the Second Battle of Acentejo in December 1495. (The dates are, like all dates of the conquest of the Canary Islands , controversial.) The surviving leaders of the "Reinos de guerra" surrendered in the spring of 1496 in the Castilian field camp in the area of ​​today's city of Los Realejos .

Even before the conquest, the number of inhabitants of the island of Tenerife had been repeatedly reduced by catching people who were sold as slaves in Europe. In the First Battle of Acentejo, won by the Guanches, there are said to have been 2,000 dead on the side of the victorious Guanches. It is estimated that at least 1,700 Guanches were killed in the Battle of Aguere in 1495 and 2,000 in the Second Battle of Acentejo that followed.

In addition, many people died from diseases that were introduced and against which they had no defenses. The most famous epidemic of pre- Hispanic Tenerife is the Modorra . It broke out at the end of 1494 and led, particularly in the Meceyatos Tegueste, Tacoronte and Taoro, with a number of up to 100 deaths per day to a loss of about 4,000 people in six months.

Even according to the restrictive regulations of the Castilian queen and the Castilian king , the guanches of the "Reinos de guerra", the Menceyatos, who had shown themselves hostile to the Castilians, could be sold as slaves after their defeat. It is known that, with the knowledge of the Bishop of the Canary Islands , Alonso Fernández de Lugo also had at least a group of 200 Guanches who did not oppose the conquest sold in Barcelona and Valencia .

The depopulation primarily affected the north side of the island, which is more suitable for agriculture because of its better water supply. After the island was conquered, the entire land, including the land in the “Reynos de paces”, was expropriated and redistributed. This distribution of land was the distribution of profits to the conquerors and to the donors who had financed the campaign. Of the 992 plots that were distributed, 19 went to Guanches and 31 to Canarios , who fought on the side of the Castilians in the conquest of the island of Tenerife.

The social, economic and religious structures of the Guanches were destroyed by the conquest. Their incorporation into the newly created Christian feudal society, speaking the Castilian language, was not uniform. Descendants of the indigenous people were found in all social classes . The Guanches did not identify with their ethnic identity, but as shepherds, farm workers or traders with the group in which they lived. That was promoted by the official authorities of the island. In the resolutions of the Cabildos of La Laguna from the years 1525 to 1533, the term Guanche is never used to designate a group, but only to describe a single person in more detail, as is the designation Portuguese or Galician. The term Guanches was replaced by the term naturales (native of), making it applicable to other people born on the island.

By the compulsion to adopt the Christian religion, to speak the Castilian language and to behave according to the social rules of the invaders, the culture of the Guanches was almost completely destroyed by the end of the 16th century.

literature

  • Antonio S. Almeida Aguiar [et al.]: Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Tenerife . Ed .: Armando del Toro García. tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X (Spanish).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Pablo Peña Atoche: Las Culturas Protohistóricas Canarias en el contexto del desarrollo cultural mediterráneo: propuesta de fasificación . In: Rafael González Antón, Fernando López Pardo, Victoria Peña (eds.): Los fenicios y el Atlántico IV Coloquio del CEFYP . Universidad Complutense, Centro de Estudios Fenicios y Púnicos, 2008, ISBN 978-84-612-8878-6 , pp. 323 (Spanish, accedacris.ulpgc.es [PDF; 505 kB ; accessed on January 21, 2019]).
  2. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, p. 19 (Spanish, mdc.ulpgc.es [accessed February 11, 2019]).
  3. ↑ Dominik Josef Wölfel: Monumenta linguae canariae . Academic printing and Verl.-Anst., Graz 1965, p. 405 ( mdc.ulpgc.es [accessed March 9, 2019]).
  4. ↑ Elena Llamas Pombo, Maximiano Trapero: ¿Es guanche la palabra guanche? In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 44 , 1998, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 91 (Spanish, dialnet.unirioja.es [accessed April 23, 2019]).
  5. ↑ guanche. In: Diccionario de la lengua española. Real Academia Española, accessed February 18, 2020 .
  6. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: Death and the cult of the dead among the natives of Tenerife (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 32 , 2002, p. 107 ( almogaren.org [accessed December 12, 2016]).
  7. ^ Fernando López Pardo: El periplo de Hannon y la expansión cartaginesa en el Africa occidental . In: Treballs del Museu Arqueologic d'Eivissa e Formentera . No. 25 , 1991, ISSN  1130-8095 , pp. 59–72 (Spanish, [1] [PDF; accessed May 23, 2017]).
  8. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña, María Ángeles Ramírez Rodríguez: El archipiélago canario en el horizonte fenicio-púnico y romano del Círculo del Estrecho (approximately siglo X ane al siglo IV dne) . In: Juan Carlos Domínguez Pérez (ed.): Gadir y el Círculo del Estrecho revisados. Propuestas de la arqueología desde un enfoque social (=  Monografías Historia y Arte ). Universidad de Cádiz, Cádiz 2011, p. 231 f . (Spanish, [2] [accessed May 17, 2017]).
  9. ↑ Conrado Rodríguez Martín: Guanches, una historia bioantropológica . Ed .: Museo Arqueológico de Tenerife. Museo Arqueológico de Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 2009, p. 47 (Spanish, [3] [PDF; accessed June 28, 2016]).
  10. ↑ Conrado Rodríguez Martín: Guanches, una historia bioantropológica . Ed .: Museo Arqueológico de Tenerife. Museo Arqueológico de Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 2009, p. 57 (Spanish, museosdetenerife.org [PDF; accessed June 28, 2016]).
  11. ↑ Maximiano Trapero: Problemas de bilingüismo histórico en la toponimia de Canarias . In: Alegría Alonso González (ed.): Actas del III Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Lengua Española: Salamanca, 22-27 de noviembre de 1993 . 1996, ISBN 84-7635-182-8 , pp. 1110 (Spanish, [4] [PDF; accessed July 28, 2016]).
  12. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 54 f . (Spanish).
  13. ↑ Juan Álvarez Delgado: Instituciones políticas indígenas de Gran Canaria - El sábor . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 27 , 1981, ISSN  0570-4065 , pp. 38 (Spanish, [5] [accessed February 13, 2017]).
  14. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Marian Montesdeoca: Religión y mito de los antiguos canarios - las fuentes etnohistóricas . Artemisa, La Laguna 2004, ISBN 84-933620-4-2 , pp. 48 (Spanish).
  15. ↑ Amaya Goñi Quinteiro: El mundo aborigen . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 14 (Spanish).
  16. ↑ Marian Montesdeoca: La Religón de arena una revisión de la idolatría guanche a la luz de las fuentes históricas . In: Tabona: Revista de prehistoria y de arqueología . No. 13 , 2004, ISSN  0213-2818 , p. 250 (Spanish, dialnet.unirioja.es [accessed May 24, 2019]).
  17. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Marian Montesdeoca: Religión y mito de los antiguos canarios - las fuentes etnohistóricas . Artemisa, La Laguna 2004, ISBN 84-933620-4-2 , pp. 25 (Spanish).
  18. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Marian Montesdeoca: Religión y mito de los antiguos canarios - las fuentes etnohistóricas . Artemisa, La Laguna 2004, ISBN 84-933620-4-2 , pp. 30 (Spanish).
  19. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Marian Montesdeoca: Religión y mito de los antiguos canarios - las fuentes etnohistóricas . Artemisa, La Laguna 2004, ISBN 84-933620-4-2 , pp. 53 (Spanish).
  20. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, keyword Ídolos y estelas in Gran Enciclopedia del Arte en Canarias. CCPC, La Laguna, 1998
  21. ↑ Marian Montesdeoca: La Religón de arena una revisión de la idolatría guanche a la luz de las fuentes históricas . In: Tabona: Revista de prehistoria y de arqueología . No. 13 , 2004, ISSN  0213-2818 , p. 249 ff . (Spanish, [6] [accessed September 9, 2016]).
  22. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: Death and the cult of the dead among the natives of Tenerife (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 32–33 , 2002, pp. 111 ( [7] [accessed December 12, 2016]).
  23. ↑ Conrado Rodríguez Martín: Enfermedad y medicina en las Islas Canarias prehispánicas . In: Eres. Arqueología / Bioantropología . No. 2 , 1991, ISSN  1130-6572 , pp. 66 ff . (Spanish, [8] [accessed July 10, 2018]).
  24. ^ Mercedes Martín Oval, Conrado Rodríguez Martín: La trepanación en las Islas Canarias . In: Eres. Arqueología / Bioantropología . No. 8 , 1998, ISSN  1130-6572 , pp. 125-134 (Spanish, [9] [accessed April 16, 2017]).
  25. ↑ Conrado Rodríguez Martín: Enfermedad y medicina en las Islas Canarias prehispánicas . In: Eres. Arqueología / Bioantropología . No. 2 , 1991, ISSN  1130-6572 , pp. 68 (Spanish, [10] [accessed July 10, 2018]).
  26. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Luis López Medina, Justo Pedro Hernández González: Las enfermedades de los antiguos canarios en la etapa de contacto con los europeos . In: Anuario de Estudios Atlánticos . No. 46 , 2000, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 383-406 (Spanish, [11] [accessed July 9, 2018]).
  27. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: Death and the cult of the dead among the natives of Tenerife (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 33 , 2002, pp. 108 ( [12] [accessed December 12, 2016]).
  28. ^ Matilde Arnay de la Rosa: Arqueología Funeraria . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 42 f . (Spanish).
  29. ^ Matilde Arnay de la Rosa: Arqueología Funeraria . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 39 (Spanish).
  30. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: Death and the cult of the dead among the natives of Tenerife (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 32–33 , 2002, pp. 112 ( [13] [accessed December 12, 2016]).
  31. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 46 (Spanish).
  32. ↑ Amaya Goñi Quinteiro: El mundo aborigen . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 18 (Spanish).
  33. ↑ Dimas Martín Socas: Hábitat de Superficie . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 49-51 (Spanish).
  34. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 66 (Spanish).
  35. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 59 f . (Spanish).
  36. ↑ Agustín Pallarés Padilla: El poblamiento prehistórico de las islas Canarias . In: El Museo Canario . tape LXIV , 2009, ISSN  0211-450X , p. 94 (Spanish, [14] [accessed December 1, 2016]).
  37. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Cerámica . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 57 ff . (Spanish).
  38. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 145 (Spanish, mdc.ulpgc.es [accessed June 3, 2019]).
  39. ^ Cristo Manuel Hernández Gómez: Industria Lítica Tallada . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 62 (Spanish).
  40. ↑ Luis Diego Cuscoy: Los Guanches vida y cultura del primitivo habitante de Tenerife . Ed .: Museo Arqueológico (=  Publicaciones del Museo Arqueológico . Volume 7 ). Museo Arqueológico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 1968, p. 39 (Spanish, [15] [accessed October 4, 2016]).
  41. ↑ Luis Diego Cuscoy: Los Guanches vida y cultura del primitivo habitante de Tenerife . Ed .: Museo Arqueológico (=  Publicaciones del Museo Arqueológico . Volume 7 ). Museo Arqueológico, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 1968, p. 41 (Spanish, [16] [accessed October 4, 2016]).
  42. ^ Bertila Galván Santos: Pieles . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 70 (Spanish).
  43. ↑ Pedro González Quintero: Industria Ósea . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 74 (Spanish).
  44. ^ José Juan Jiménez González: Manifestaciones Repuestres Prehispanicos . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias . tape 4 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X , p. 82 ff . (Spanish).
  45. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: The podomorphic rock paintings of Lanzarote (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 42 , 2011, ISSN  1695-2669 , pp. 133 ff . ( [17] [accessed February 15, 2017]).
  46. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 33 (Spanish, mdc.ulpgc.es [accessed June 3, 2019]).
  47. ↑ Renata Ana Springer Bunk: The Libyan-Berber inscriptions of the Canary Islands in their rock painting context . Köppe, Cologne 2014, ISBN 978-3-89645-942-8 , pp. 27 .
  48. ↑ María José Ramos Rodríguez: La Ceremonia Guanche de Candelaria y las fiestas de la Patrona de Canarias . In: La Basílica de Candelaria - Crónica de una construción . Ayuntamiento de Candelaria, Candelaria 2012, ISBN 978-84-616-1174-4 , pp. 347 ff . (Spanish).
  49. ↑ Antonio Rumeu de Armas: La colaboración del mencey de Güimar en la conquista de Tenerife . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 29 , 1983, pp. 49 (Spanish, [18] [accessed June 20, 2016]).
  50. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: Death and the cult of the dead among the natives of Tenerife (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 32–33 , 2002, pp. 111 ( [19] [accessed December 12, 2016]).
  51. ↑ Antonio Rumeu de Armas: La conquista de Tenerife 1494-1496 . Cabildo Inular de Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 1975, p. 182 (Spanish, [20] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  52. ↑ Juan Álvarez Delgado: La conquista de Tenerife: un reajuste de datos hasta 1496 (conclusión) . In: Revista de historia canaria . tape 27 , no. 133-134 , 1961, pp. 6–65 (Spanish, [21] [accessed January 14, 2017]).
  53. ^ Eduardo Aznar Vallejo: La integración de las Islas Canarias en la Corona de Castilla (1478-1526) . Idea, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 2009, ISBN 978-84-9941-022-7 , pp. 170 (Spanish).
  54. ^ John Mercer: The Canary Islanders - their prehistory conquest and survival . Rex Collings, London 1980, ISBN 0-86036-126-8 , pp. 205 (English).
  55. ^ John Mercer: The Canary Islanders - their prehistory conquest and survival . Rex Collings, London 1980, ISBN 0-86036-126-8 , pp. 207 (English).
  56. ↑ Antonio Rumeu de Armas: La conquista de Tenerife 1494-1496 . Cabildo Inular de Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 1975, p. 246 (Spanish, [22] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  57. ↑ Conrado Rodríguez Martín: Enfermedad y medicina en las Islas Canarias prehispánicas . In: Eres. Arqueología / Bioantropología . No. 2 , 1991, ISSN  1130-6572 , pp. 69 f . (Spanish, [23] [accessed July 10, 2018]).
  58. ^ John Mercer: The Canary Islanders - their prehistory conquest and survival . Rex Collings, London 1980, ISBN 0-86036-126-8 , pp. 229 (English).
  59. ^ John Mercer: The Canary Islanders - their prehistory conquest and survival . Rex Collings, London 1980, ISBN 0-86036-126-8 , pp. 215 (English).
  60. ↑ Sergio Baucell's Mesa: El "pleito de los naturales" y la asimilación guanche de la identidad etnica a la identidad de clase . In: Revista de historia canaria . No. 196 , 2014, ISSN  0213-9472 , p. 148 (Spanish, mdc.ulpgc.es [accessed January 28, 2020]).
  61. ↑ Sergio Baucell's Mesa: El "pleito de los naturales" y la asimilación guanche de la identidad etnica a la identidad de clase . In: Revista de historia canaria . No. 196 , 2014, ISSN  0213-9472 , p. 144 (Spanish, mdc.ulpgc.es [accessed January 28, 2020]).
  62. ^ John Mercer: The Canary Islanders - their prehistory conquest and survival . Rex Collings, London 1980, ISBN 0-86036-126-8 , pp. 213 (English).

Remarks

  1. ↑ For the Tinerfeños the island has only two sides: the north side, which extends from the northernmost point of the island in the Anaga Mountains to the westernmost point in the Teno Mountains, and the south side, which extends from the northernmost point of the island in the Anaga Mountains to the southernmost point at Arona is leaving . In between lies the mountains as a weather divide .