T-55

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
T-55
T-55, basic version

T-55, basic version
General properties
crew 4 (commander, driver, gunner, loader)
length 9 m (with cannon)
6.04 m (without cannon)
width 3.27 m
height 2.35 m (tower top)
2.8 m (with MG)
Dimensions 36 t (combat weight)
Armor and armament
Armor Tower 30–200 mm, tub 20–100 mm
Main armament 1 x 100 mm cannon of the type D-10T 2S, 40 trains (41 grenade cartridges)
Secondary armament 1 × 7.62 mm MG PKT (axially parallel) and 1 × 7.62 mm MG (driver, rigidly installed) with 2000 cartridges

1 × 12.7 mm MG DSchK , (Fla-MG, 500 cartridges)

agility
drive V12- W-55 , 48 valves, 38.88 liter displacement
560+ HP
suspension Torsion bar
Top speed > 45 km / h
Power / weight 11.9 kW / t (16.1 PS / t)
Range 500 km road,
700 km road, with additional tanks

The T-55 was a standard tank of the Soviet Army and the Warsaw Pact armies - such as the East German NVA - in the 1960s and 1970s. It is one of the most frequently produced types of tanks in the world, has been involved in numerous conflicts and triggered significant developments in tank construction .

history

development

The tank was presented to the public on May 9, 1958 and officially entered into service. Series production began in June 1958. It was developed from the T-54 and adapted to the conditions of the battle when using weapons of mass destruction in Europe. The engine power, the range and the combat set (ammunition supply) have been increased and the NBC protection (hermetic ability of the combat area) has been improved. The optimized bullet-repellent shape of the tower and tub was striking. Despite the modernization, little emphasis was placed on simple operation and maintenance under battlefield conditions. According to the NVA, the removal of the engine took about 21 hours (Leopard 1 (standard tank) about 35 minutes). The reasons for this are that the engine and gearbox of the T-55 are not designed as a compact block, but consist of individual components. Furthermore, the military doctrine of the USSR and the Warsaw Pact did not include in their operational plans to repair broken combat vehicles as quickly as possible.

Intended use

The main purpose was the offensive use in large-scale operations after own or enemy nuclear weapons strikes. Combat actions should be carried out with the largest possible tank detachments (from battalion upwards) in conjunction with motorized infantry, artillery and other armed forces and under cover from the air. But it turned out that the tank could be used for almost all tasks under almost all conditions.

evaluation

The capabilities of the T-55 in battle with battle tanks had not increased from 1958 to 1962. APDS and HEAT projectiles for the 100 mm D-10 cannon had been developed, but their adoption into the armament of the troops had not yet been determined. This meant that the T-55 were only able to successfully fight the British Centurion, like the US M60, within the range of a direct shot when hit in the side or when hit in the turret. The Soviet research institute VNII-100 created a model for a duel between the T-55 and the M60 and determined that without APDS and HEAT projectiles, the T-55 would have no chance with only 36% of the chance of success; with this ammunition there would be a chance of success 50%. As a result of the international development of modern battle tanks, it was stated that the Soviet medium tanks were to be regarded as obsolete in the early 1960s.

Calls

A destroyed Iraqi Forces T-55 on the Highway of Death during the Second Gulf War
Decommissioned T-55 of the former VRS in Bosnia

In its main period of use (1960s and early 1970s), the T-55 was a modern weapon system that was primarily characterized by its firepower, mobility and universality. Because of its simple basic concept, it was possible to modernize the tank over the years with little effort and to keep it technically at the level of its main rivals. With the introduction of new main battle tanks in the west and east (Leopard 1 A1A1 / A2, M60A3, T-64 and T-72, respectively ), the T-55 receded into the second tier , but continued to be used by both the Soviet Union and its allies used extensively in the Warsaw Pact. In the NVA it has been partially replaced by the T-72 since 1977.

The high losses in the Six Day War resulted from the poor level of training of the crews and poor tactics. In particular, the lack of air cover and poor battlefield reconnaissance often had a devastating effect.

With proper use (tank-favorable terrain, infantry and artillery support) and competent troop leadership, even smaller units with the T-55 dominated the battlefield until the end of the 1960s (see Vietnam War ). Some conflicts involving the T-55 were:

technology

Armament

T-55 AM, The multilayered arrangement of the armor elements within the reinforced front panel can be seen clearly in this cutaway model of the former NVA .

The armament consisted of a vertically and horizontally stabilized cannon D-10T 2S with a caliber of 100 millimeters, a MG PKT (7.62 mm) mounted axially parallel to the main weapon and an anti-aircraft machine gun, usually 12.7 mm DSchK on the loader hatch. Early versions of the T-55 still had a rigidly installed PKT in the front of the driver. But since it could hardly be used sensibly, it was soon left out.

The cannon fired cartridged ammunition (fragmentation, hollow charge and sub-caliber). The rate of fire under optimal conditions was 7 shots while standing and 3 shots while moving up to 25 km / h per minute. The firing range in direct aiming was up to 1660 meters, in combined fire on area targets up to 14.6 km. During fire fighting while moving, the average hit probability was 65.5% at 1000-1500m. For training purposes, a plug-in tube for 23 × 115 mm AM23 ammunition could be installed, which significantly reduced the cost of training ammunition. There were also 100 mm training grenades with a reduced propellant charge, flare and a weak dismantling charge.

In the mid-1970s, a modern electronic fire control system was developed with which older T-55s could be retrofitted. It included, among other things, new target devices, fire control computers, laser range finders and a laser sensor. With the modernized cannon, laser-guided anti-tank guided missiles (100 mm tubular rocket 3UBK10-1 with rocket 9M117 (only for T-55AM2B)) with a range of up to 4000 m could now be fired in addition to normal grenades . With these various retrofit kits, the combat value, especially the firepower, was constantly adjusted.

Technical equipment

T-55 AM, commanders and gunner position in the turret with breech block of the cannon

A novelty was the ability to dive to overcome the water hazards that are often to be expected on the European theater of war (up to a depth of about 4.50 meters). The preparation time for a dive trip was about 1 to 3 hours, depending on the level of training of the crew. Orientation under water was carried out using a periscope , which also served as a snorkel and was mounted on the right ( loader ) side, as well as a gyro compass for the driver. A bilge pump was installed to remove the ingress of water . The crew was equipped with life jackets and diving rescues (RG-UF) for emergencies . An underwater ride (UF) was permitted in peacetime up to 1000 meters in length, due to the rising engine temperature (max. 110 degrees cooling water temperature) due to the limited cooling under water, there was a risk of engine damage.

The crew's field of vision was naturally limited, individual field of vision: the driver to the front and to the right, the loader from the front right to the rear right, the gunner only to the front, the commander from diagonally front right over the entire left side to the rear right. The individual fields of vision overlapped, so an all-round view was possible. The observation took place through standardized corner mirrors , which could easily be exchanged within two minutes even in combat. The commander had an optical target / observation device TPKU-2B (5 times magnification) in a rotatable dome and four corner mirrors. At night the observation device could be exchanged for the IR viewer TKN-1. The targets were illuminated with the IF headlight OU-3G. With the commander's aiming system, he was able to point the tower (and thus the cannon) horizontally at a target. The gunner had an optical telescopic sight 2B-22 with two levels of magnification, an infrared night sight TPN-1-22 and a corner mirror. The accuracy was sufficient for the time and ensured accurate shooting while moving at a target the size of a battle tank up to a maximum of 1500 m. A WS-4 or WS-4M corner mirror that could be rotated through 360 ° was available to the loader.

The T-55 was partially suitable for night combat. For this purpose he had three infrared viewing devices; one for the driver, one in the commander's cupola and an IR aiming device for the gunner. In addition, the reticle of the day target device could be illuminated. The infrared devices were used both actively (in connection with IR spotlights ) and passively. For observation at night, the observation device could be removed and replaced with an active infrared night vision device of the type TKN-1. The infrared searchlight , which was permanently attached to the commander 's cupola, had to be mechanically coupled to the night vision device. The power supply unit was installed in the hatch instead of a corner mirror. However, the effective range of vision with headlights was only 300 - 400 m at a magnification of 2.75 times.

The vehicle was accessed through four armored hatches (driver, loader, commander, emergency exit in the bottom of the hull). When driving with the driver's hatch open (driver's seat raised), the turret had to be lashed because when turning it swept over the driver's hatch and endangered the driver's head. Communication took place via a combined intercom / radio device with four permanently adjustable channels. Although it was purely a tube device (the use of electron tubes promised to be more resistant to any EMP in the event of a nuclear explosion), it was exceptionally robust and powerful for its time. Later, however, the tube / transistor hybrid assembly was used. In command vehicles (from company commander upwards) a second radio was installed in the rear of the turret and the number of grenades carried was reduced by five.

A fog system for glare was built in. This injected diesel fuel into the exhaust manifold when the driver pressed the corresponding switch. The cloud of mist was ejected sideways through the exhaust pipe to the left.

The T-55A has an automatic fire extinguishing system .

NBC protection

T-55 AM, turret rear inside with grenades and grenade cartridge holder on the turret rear

To protect the crew, a number of novel solutions were introduced that were intended to hermetize both the fighting compartment and the engine compartment. Since no suspended matter or gas filters were installed in the T-55, the NBC protection was considered unreliable for several hours. All hatches had foam rubber seals , as did the tower ring. The riflescope was closed with a spring-loaded roller cover, the PKT with a rubber seal around the barrel.

In the event of radioactive contamination of the battlefield, the combat area was pressurized using a centrifugal ventilation system with a self-cleaning centrifuge.

By equipping the cannon with an ejector at the muzzle, the powder gases were sucked out directly through the barrel. This enabled the fire fight with cannon and PKT to continue. The hermetic seal was triggered either automatically or manually:

  • automatic: A measuring device continuously measured the level of radioactivity and, if necessary, triggered a number of pyro-cartridges that actuated mechanical locking devices - in the event of a nuclear weapon detonation with high instant nuclear radiation, the engine was switched off, the telescopic sight locked, the ventilation grilles over the engine compartment closed.
  • manual: all openings and hatches were closed by hand.

The fan was always switched on manually.

In the event of a chemical or biological alarm, the tank was completely locked, as was the cannon. It could no longer be shot. The fan was also switched off and secured. The engine got the air in the normal way directly from the environment.

drive

V12 diesel engine T-54/55 from the left

The transversely installed V12 diesel engine with four-valve technology ( DOHC ) was reliable and, with its direct diesel injection, was economical for a combat vehicle. The maximum speeds achieved were 25 km / h off-road and up to 50 km / h on the road, although this could vary depending on the manufacturer's version. The range at cruising speed (speed in the column: 30 km / h) was 500 to 700 km with additional tanks.

The drive consisted of five double rollers (with solid rubber tires) on each side in individual suspension , a guide wheel (front) and a drive wheel (rear). There was a larger gap between the first and second roller. This should reduce the effect of mines on the landing gear and at the same time improve climbing and crossing ability. The suspension was provided by torsion bars . The tracks had 91 profiled links made of cast steel with metal-rubber joints.

The power was transmitted to the drive rings via a deflection gear, a change gear, two planetary gears and two side gears. The gearbox had five forward gears and one reverse gear (in U-shift, i.e. 1st and reverse gear were in the middle), which could still be reduced to about 50% with the steering levers in order to achieve more tractive power.

It was controlled with the help of two steering levers, each of which acted on the planetary gear via a clutch. By pulling back the steering lever, the speed of rotation of the respective drive ring is reduced, initially by disengaging the clutch and at level 1 by halving the speed. The clutch is disengaged again via level 1 and the drive train is braked in level 2. The main clutch was a 17-disc dry clutch that had to be operated with the left foot to shift gears. All controls were operated either hydraulically or mechanically.

Started off after engaging second gear with the steering levers, from level 2 through level 1 to the normal position. As a result, the main clutch was less stressed.

The engine output increased over the years and in the course of technical development from the original 500 HP to almost 800 HP. The pneumatic starting system should preferably be used to start the engine . Behind the driver's seat, two compressed air cylinders with 150 bar compressed air each were stored, which were fed into the cylinders via a distributor with non-return valves rotating at half the crankshaft speed , thereby moving the pistons . The electric starter was mostly used in combination with the pneumatic starting system or when the air pressure in the system was no longer sufficient. Before starting, the cooling water had to be preheated to 70 ° C with a preheater in which diesel was burned. Because of the enormous wear and tear on the pistons, a cold start was only allowed in extreme emergencies, it should only be able to withstand two to three cold starts. In the event of a battle alarm, the driver had to rush to his tank as quickly as possible to start the preheater. The preheating usually lasted 15 to 20 minutes and was interrupted in the event of a battle at 40 ° C.

A mileage of 3,000 kilometers was planned under training and combat conditions until the main repair of the vehicle and drive. In practice, this requirement was often exceeded by far (at least in the NVA, for example 6000 km were achieved at the Löbau Officers College ).

Manufacturing

T-55 AM, right turret side cut open (note the decreasing thickness of the armor towards the turret rear)

Most of the T-55s were manufactured in the tank factories No. 183 Nizhny Tagil and No. 174 Omsk. There were license productions in Poland and Czechoslovakia.

The tub was made of rolled armor steel, the individual armor plates were electrically welded. The tower was cast from steel, after finishing the surface hardening in the eddy current process . This manufacturing step is necessary because steel castings produce a certain amount of tension or residual compressive stress, and also reduce trapping points and other exposed areas, and the material thicknesses of the individual tower sections are different.

The entire production was designed for effective and rapid mass production in wartime.

Modifications

Numerous special vehicles were developed on the basis of the T-55, including:

Over the years, a huge number of versions and modifications have emerged that can hardly be surveyed. However, some development stages were so distinctive that official version designations can be assigned to them. Notwithstanding this, every user modified the vehicles according to their ideas and needs.

T-55
Basic version, developed from the T-54; More powerful engine, increased fuel supply thanks to new external tanks, IR equipment for night travel, revised turret and combat area (a cabinet for 12 to 15 grenades was installed in the free space next to the driver, depending on the version), newly developed optical fire control system, modified cannon with ejector , Use of the new MG PKT from Kalashnikov instead of the outdated SG 43 from Gorjunow as secondary armament, increase in the ammunition supply by around 20%, simple NBC protection devices, newly developed UF equipment (dive to 4.50 m water depth)
This type was only introduced in the Soviet Army, in the GSSD and in the Vietnamese People's Army, it formed the template for the Chinese Type 59.
T-55A
Revised drive system, increase in the fuel supply through new inner tanks (the grenade cabinet on the loader side was designed as an additional tank at the same time), introduction of additional tanks in special brackets at the rear (2 × 200 liters in roll hoop drums), conversion of the fire control system from full-caliber bullets to sub-caliber grenades , Increase in the ammunition supply for the secondary armament, new radio system, introduction of the IR night combat equipment for gunner and commander, newly developed NBC protective equipment with automatic triggering of the hermetic seal, reduction of the secondary armament (the driver's PKT has generally been removed), temporary removal of the anti-aircraft machine gun (was later reversed). Modernization status 1981: Motor W-55W, 580 HP.
This type was delivered to the Warsaw Pact troops from around 1965 and exported to third countries. It made up most of the T-55s produced. The tanks of the Soviet Army and the GSSD were modernized by retrofitting.
In the ČSSR , tests with " drive-by-wire " were carried out, some of the vehicles were converted accordingly and taken over into service.
T-55AM
Modernization version from the USSR; Reinforced landing gear, new electrical system, installation of the automatic fire control system WOLNA with laser range finder KDT-2 and ballistic computer BV-55, partial introduction of reactive armor on the turret (T-55AMV), partly equipped with guided weapon system 9K116 BASTION including aiming device telescopic sight 1K113 for guided weapon control according to the beam rider principle in daytime operation and as an active / passive infrared night rifle scope in nighttime operation, newly developed sub-caliber bullet with higher initial speed and increased penetration power. New engine W-55U (W-46-5M) with 690 HP.
T-55AM2
Modernization version from the ČSSR; reinforced landing gear, newly developed electronic fire control system KLADIVO with laser range finder, laser warning system , ballistic computer , radio set R-173, optimized NBC protection system, reinforced armor,
T-55AM2B
Like T-55AM2, but with guided weapon system 9K116 BASTION, aiming device telescopic sight 1K113 for guided weapon control according to the beam rider principle in daytime operation and as an active / passive infrared nighttime telescopic sight in nighttime operation

Most of these modifications were delivered to the troops as retrofit kits.

In 2004 there were still a number of T-55s (including licensed buildings, e.g. Type 59 , conversions and demilitarized vehicles) in various armies. This also includes the vehicles that are assigned to strategic reserves. However, a meaningful use in modern combat is no longer imaginable. The reasons for this are the outdated electronic equipment, the insufficient armor for today's weapon technology and the insufficient armament. For many Third World countries, emerging countries and paramilitary organizations, it is still an effective means of waging civil war or enforcing local or regional interests.

  • T-55AM2B of the NVA

  • Soviet T-55AM with laser rangefinder on the cannon

  • Israeli T-55 with a clearing blade and British 105 mm cannon

  • Israeli flak tank ZSU-57-2 on T-54/55 chassis, the modified chassis is striking

  • Israeli armored personnel carrier Achzarit on a T-55 basis

  • TR-85 : upgraded T-55 (TR-85) of the Romanian army

  • Bridge-laying device BLG-60 of the NVA on T-55 chassis

  • MT-55 bridge-laying tank

  • Scrapping of a T-55A of the NVA in June 1989

Nicknames

Like many weapons and weapon systems all over the world, the T-55 also enjoyed various more or less drastic nicknames that heralded its "popularity", for example in the NVA: meatball (because of the tower shape), iron pig, egg grinder, red Rudi, Oven, trestle, sheet metal coffin, trunk tractor, bomber.

Technical data T-55A, basic version

  • Crew 4 men
    • commander
    • driver
    • Gunner
    • Loader
  • Armament:
    • 100mm cannon D-10T 2S
      • Length: 56 caliber
      • Trains: 40
      • Locking wedge: semi-automatic
      • Firing: mechanical / electromechanical
      • Ignition delay: 0.16 s with electromechanical firing
      • Stabilizer: STP-2 "Zyklon"
    • 7.62 mm coaxial machine gun PKT
  • Combat set (NVA 1977):
    • 7 pieces 100 mm shaped charge BK-5 (900 m / s)
    • 15 pieces 100 mm sub-caliber BM-8 (1415 m / s) or BM-20 (1430 m / s)
    • 21 pieces 100 mm fragmentation explosive OF-412 (900 m / s) detonators adjustable
    • 500 pieces of 12.7 mm cartridges for Fla-MG
    • 2250 rifle cartridges 7.62 × 54 mm R for PKT (tracer, steel core, tank fire)
    • 300 cartridges 7.62 × 39 mm M43 for AKMS-47 (occupation weapon )
    • 4 x 24 cartridges 9 × 18 mm for Makarov pistol (personal weapons, commander and driver)
    • 10 to 15 hand grenades F1
    • Hand light signals or signal pistol
    • Pioneering explosives (explosive cartridges, TNT charges and the like)
    • Fog bodies, smoke cartridges
  • Armor
  • Tub
    • Bow: 100 mm at 30 degrees incline (rolled armored steel, hardened)
    • Side: 80 mm (rolled armored steel, hardened)
    • Stern: 46 mm (rolled armored steel)
    • Roof: 20 mm (rolled armored steel, hardened)
    • Bottom: 20 mm
  • tower
    • Forehead: 200 mm (cast armored steel, hardened)
    • Side: 80 mm (cast armored steel, hardened)
    • Rear: 50 mm (cast armored steel, hardened)
    • Roof: 39 mm (cast armored steel, hardened)
  • Dimensions
    • Overall length: 9000 mm (with cannon forward)
    • Tub length: 6200 mm
    • Width: 3270 mm
    • Height: 2350 mm
    • Ground clearance: 425 mm
    • Combat mass: 36.0 tons
  • drive
    • Engine: Water-cooled four-stroke - diesel engine W-55
    • 12-cylinder V, 48 valves, bore: 150 mm Stroke: 180 / 186.7 mm, kg 38.88 liters, weight about 980, 580 hp (427 kW) / 2000 min -1 , 2250 Nm / 1300 min −1 , compression 1:14 / 1: 15.5
    • Compressed air starting system (150 bar) and / or
    • combined electric starter motor / generator
  • Power transmission
    • 17-disc dry clutch
    • Change gear 5 forward gears, 1 reverse gear
    • optional reduction with additional gear (50%)
    • Transfer case
    • Two-stage planetary steering gear
  • Services
    • Top speed: approx. 25 km / h off-road,> 50 km / h on the road
    • Range: around 330–380 km off-road, around 620-650 km on the road
    • Standard consumption: 3.6 liters / km (0.5 liter supplement for off-road driving)
    • Fuel capacity: 960 liters of diesel fuel plus 2 × 200 liters in additional tanks
    • Specific power: 16.1 hp / ton
    • Ability to cross: 2.70 m
    • Climbing ability: 0.80 m
    • Wading depth: 1.40 m without preparation / underwater travel 5 m
    • Ground pressure : 0.81 kg / cm²
    • Gradeability: 30 °
    • Lean angle: 32 °
    • Built-in fog system
    • Fire extinguishing system installed

States of operations

User states (red)

States in which the T-55 was (and partly still is) used:

Non-state actors:

  • In the civil war in Syria , captured T-55s - like other loot technology - are used by the rebels.

literature

  • AW Karpenko: Soviet-Russian tanks . 1905-2003. Elbe-Dnjepr, Klitzschen 2004, ISBN 3-933395-44-5 , p. 291–309 (Russian: Обозрение отечественной бронетанковой техники (1905–1995 гг.) . Translated by R. Meier).
  • Jörg Siegert , Helmut Hanske: Main battle tanks of the NVA . Motorbuch, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-613-03294-1 , p. 113-153 .

Web links

Commons : T-54 / T-55  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ AW Karpenko: Soviet-Russian tanks . 1905-2003. Elbe-Dnjepr, Klitzschen 2004, ISBN 3-933395-44-5 , p. 291 (Russian: Обозрение отечественной бронетанковой техники (1905–1995 гг.) . Translated by R. Meier).
  2. ↑ a b Chief Panzer Service: Description and use of T-55 / T-55A tanks . Ed .: National People's Army. A 051/01/10. NVA, 1975.
  3. ↑ a b c d Dipl.-Ing. Rolf Hilmes: Dipl.-Ing. Rolf Hilmes: Western and Eastern tank development in the Cold War. DasPanzermuseum, accessed on July 17, 2020 .
  4. ^ Scientific Services: The Military Doctrines of the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation since the 1970s. German Bundestag, accessed on July 18, 2020 .
  5. ↑ Stefan Kotsch: Main battle tanks in detail - From the T-54 to the T-90 - History of Soviet tank construction. Retrieved November 2, 2019 .
  6. ^ Stefan Kotsch: Das Panzerdetail - Leopard 1 fire control system. Accessed on November 11, 2019 .
  7. ^ Stefan Kotsch: The tank detail - fire control system of the M-60A3. Retrieved November 11, 2019 .
  8. ↑ a b Chief Panzer Service: Medium tanks T-55, T-55A and T-55A (P) . Ed .: National People's Army. A051 / 1/117. NVA, S. 232 .
  9. ↑ a b Stefan Kotsch: Main battle tanks in detail - From the T-54 to the T-90 - History of Soviet tank construction. Retrieved November 2, 2019 .
  10. ↑ Missile and Weapons Technical Service (RWD) - Rohrrakte 9M117. Retrieved November 9, 2019 .
  11. ↑ Stefan Kotsch: Das Panzerdetail - Ammunition of the 100 mm D-10 cannon, Part 1. Accessed on November 2, 2019 .
  12. ^ Jörg Siegert, Helmut Hanske: Main battle tanks of the NVA . Motorbuch, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-613-03294-1 , p. 119 .
  13. ↑ Stefan Kotsch: The tank detail - fire control system of the T-55. Retrieved November 1, 2019 .
  14. ^ A b Paul Pietsch Verlage GmbH & Co .: Tanks of the USSR & Russia since 1945 . Ed .: Alexander Lüdeke. 1st edition. Motorbuch Verlag, Stuttgart 2016, ISBN 978-3-613-03866-0 .
  15. ↑ M.-O. Arnold, Dr.-Ing. C. Escher, Dr. H. Hammelrath, R. Hanus, U. Knobloch, K. Kohlgrüber, Dr. H. Löblich, A. Oldewurtel, G.-W. Overbeck, J. Schädlich-Stubenrauch, C. Schmees, K.-H. SchüttDr. I. Steller, Dr. H.-J. Wieland, J. Wiesenmüller, R. Wiesenmüller: Cast steel. (PDF) Federal Association of the German Foundry Industry (BDG), accessed on July 6, 2020 .
  16. ↑ Dieter Liedtke: Heat treatment of iron materials / 1. Basics and applications. 7., completely reworked. Edition Expert-Verl, Renningen, ISBN 978-3-8169-2735-8 .
  17. ↑ Das Panzerdetail - STP-2 Zyklon weapon stabilizer for T-54B and T-55. Retrieved July 22, 2020 .
  18. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Jörg Siegert , Helmut Hanske: Main battle tanks of the NVA . Motorbuch, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-613-03294-1 , p. 152 .
  19. ↑ Main battle tank T55 AM2 (training model). BAAIN BW, November 27, 14, accessed on November 4, 2019 .
  20. ↑ Jeffrey White, Andrew J. Tabler, Aaron Y. Zelin: Syria's military opposition - How effective, united, or extremist? (PDF; 3.8 MB) In: Policy Focus September 128 , 2013, p. 19 , accessed on August 16, 2014 (English).