Betsimisaraka
The Betsimisaraka (German: "the many lovebirds") are the second largest ethnic group ( Foko ) in Madagascar after the Merina . Their share in the population is around 15%. Most of the people live on a stretch of coast on the east coast, from Mananjary in the south to Antalaha in the north. The Betsimisaraka have long had relationships with European sailors and traders, creating an ethnically mixed sub-group known as the zana-malata . European influence can be seen in the musical traditions valse (waltz) andbasesa , which are typically performed with accordion accompaniment . Tromba (possession) ceremonies (communication with the deceased in a trance) are widespread in the Betsimisaraka culture.
Until the late 17th century, the various clans on the east coast were subordinate to tribal chiefs ( filohany ) who were usually only recognized in one or two villages. 1710 appeared Ratsimilaho , a Zana-Malata who united these clans under his rule. He ruled for 50 years and his rule led to a feeling of community, but his successors could not maintain this union and even made it vulnerable to the growing influences and presence of the Europeans and in particular to the French settlers, slave traders, missionaries and traders. The fragmented Betsimisaraka kingdom was easily conquered by Radama I , king of the kingdom of Madagascar , in 1817 . The submission of the Betsimisaraka in the 19th century left the population relatively impoverished. Under the French colonization (1896-1960) educational programs were introduced and paid jobs were created on the French plantations. Even today, the cultivation of vanilla , ylang-ylang , coconut oil and coffee on the former plantations is one of the economic pillars of the region, alongside subsistence farming and fishing, as well as mining.
Ethnic identity
The Betsimisaraka make up around 15 percent of the population of Madagascar and in 2011 numbered more than 1,500,000 people. The subgroup of the Zana-Malata partly has European ancestry through generations of contact and mixing with European pirates, seafarers and traders who docked along the east coast to repair their ships or to settle there. Like the Sakalava in the west, the Betsimisaraka consist of many small clans that did not grow together into a people until the early 18th century. Most Betsimisaraka have Bantu-African and Asiatic-Austronesian ancestors. They live in an elongated, narrow territory along the east coast of Madagascar from Mananjary in the south to Antalaha in the north. This area also includes Madagascar's main port, Toamasina , and the major cities of Fénérive Est and Maroansetra . Culturally, the Betsimisaraka can be divided into a northern ( Antavaratra ) and a southern ( Antatsimo ) subgroup. The link is the sub-clan Betanimena Betsimisaraka (before 1710: Tsikoa ), which is located roughly in the middle of the territory. Many elements of culture are common in both groups, including ancestor worship , obsession , ritual sacrifices of zebu, and patriarchal social structure. The two groups are distinguished linguistically by subdialects and sociologically by different fady ( taboos ), as well as certain funeral rites and other customs. The Betsimisaraka practice famadihana ( reburial of the dead) and sambatra ( circumcision ) and believe in sorcery and supernatural powers. Many taboos and fairy tales revolve around lemurs and crocodiles , both of which are widespread in the territory of the Betsimisaraka.
history
Until the beginning of the 18th century, the tribal association consisted of numerous clans, which were subordinate to the Filohany in each village. Around Antongil Bay in the north lived clans that were relatively more prestigious and who had been granted priority since at least 1500. The natural harbors in the bays of the northeast coast encouraged the emergence of port cities such as Antongil , Titingue , Foulpointe , Fenerive and Tamatave and thus the economic and cultural development of Antavaratra Betsimisaraka; In contrast, the southern coastline did not have suitable ports. The peasants near the ports traded rice, cattle, slaves and other goods with the nearby Mascarene Islands . The strategic position of the eastern ports for cross-regional trade attracted the greatest density of European settlers to this part of the island, especially British and American pirates , whose numbers grew dramatically from the 1680s to the 1720s. They settled along the coast from today's Antsiranana in the north to Nosy Boraha and Foulpointe in the east. Mixed marriages between these Europeans and the daughters of local chiefs gave rise to a multiracial population known as the zana-malata .
Around 1700 the Tsikoa began to unite around some powerful leaders. Ramanano , the chief of Vatomandry , was elected leader of the Tsikoa ("Those who stand firm") in 1710 and led invasions against the ports of the north. Oral tradition says that Ramanano stationed an armed militia in Vohimasina , which he sent on military expeditions to the neighboring villages, where they burned the villages, desecrated graves and enslaved the women and children. Overall, he was considered a cruel and unpopular leader. A Betsimisaraka zana-malata from the north, Ratsimilaho , who was the child of the daughter of a local filohany and a British pirate named Tom Tew , who was born around 1694 and had briefly visited England and India with his father, led a resistance movement against these invasions and successfully united his community despite his young age. He conquered Fenerive in 1712 and forced the Tsikoa to flee over muddy, red clay pits, the color of which stuck to their feet and earned them the nickname "Betanimena" (Many from the Red Earth). Ratsimilaho was elected king of all Betsimisaraka and was given the new name, "Ramaromanompo" (lord who is served by many). He lived in his residence in Foulpointe . He gave his compatriots in the north the name "Betsimisaraka" to strengthen their unity in the face of the enemy. Then he negotiated a peace with the Betanimena, offering their king control of the port of Tamatave . But this agreement broke after only six months, whereupon Ratsimilaho retook Tamatave and forced the king of the Betanimena to flee south. He formed alliances with the southern Betsimisaraka and the neighboring Bezanozano and increased his power over these areas by allowing the local chiefs to retain their power provided they paid a tribute out of rice, cattle and slaves; around 1730 he was one of the most powerful kings of Madagascar. At the time of his death in 1754, his moderate and stabilizing rule had already maintained the unity of the clans in the Betsimisaraka Union for almost forty years. He also created an alliance with the second great kingship of the time, the Sakalava on the west coast, where he married Matave , the only daughter of the Iboina king Andrianbaba .
Ratsimilaho's son, Zanahary, succeeded him in 1755. He was a despotic ruler and led several attacks against villages in his own domain and was murdered by his own people in 1767. Zanahary was succeeded by his son Iavy , who was hated for continuing his father's practice of raiding villages under his rule, and also for getting rich from working with French slave traders. During the reign of Iavy, an Eastern European adventurer named Moritz Benjowski founded a settlement in the Betsimisaraka area and proclaimed himself King of Madagascar and even convinced several local chiefs not to pay tribute to Iboina anymore. This aroused the anger of the Sakalava and in 1776 soldiers of the Sakalava marched into the area to punish the Betsimisaraka and kill Benjowsky, which ultimately failed. Zakavolo , Iavy's son, followed his father after his death in 1791. European reports cast Zakavolo in a bad light because they report that he constantly asked for gifts and insulted the ambassadors when the Europeans did not comply. His subjects deposed him in 1803 with the help of the then governor General Magallon , who at that time administered the French colonies on the island; Zakavolo was ultimately murdered by his subjects. In the decades after Ratsimilaho's death, the French took control of Ile Sainte Marie and established trading ports in the Betsimisaraka area. By 1810 a French envoy, Sylvain Roux , exercised control of the port city, even though it was nominally ruled by Zakavolo's uncle Tsihala . A dispute between Tsihala's male relatives over control of the city further weakened the Betsimisaraka's political unity and made them unable to defend themselves against increasing foreign attacks. Tsihala lost his power the following year to another zana-malata , Jean Rene , who maintained close collaboration with the French.
The kingdom of Imerina in the center of the island experienced a rapid process of unification during this period and expanded since the end of the 18th century. In 1817 the Merina King Radama I led an army with 25,000 soldiers from Antananarivo to Toamasina. Although Jean Rene did not surrender, he was not expelled from Radama with his Europeans and zana-malata ; on the contrary, Radama cooperated with them and in this way also established diplomatic and economic relations with the French, just as he had previously done with the British missionaries in the heartland of the Merina. As a result, the area was effectively colonized, Merina garrisons were deployed in the ports and distributed over the Betsimisaraka hinterland. However, the Betsimisaraka hated the occupation by the Merina and launched an unsuccessful revolution in 1825 after they had not received any help from the French, as they had hoped. As the presence and influence of the Merina in the former Betsimisaraka kingdom increased, many farmers moved to areas that were beyond the control of the Merina or sought employment with European settlers on plantations, where they could expect a little more protection. Any remnants of the Betsimisaraka ruling line were wiped out under the Merina queen Ranavalona I , who condemned many nobles to submit to the deadly tangena - divine judgment . During her reign, cultural practices related to Europeans were banned, including Christianity and musical instruments; ultimately all Europeans were driven from the island during their reign. Her son, Radama II , relaxed these regulations and Europeans gradually returned to the Betsimisaraka area. French entrepreneurs in particular founded plantations for export goods such as vanilla, coffee, tea and coconut. The growing number of Merina colonists since the beginning of the 19th century and of Europeans since the 1860s led to a growing demand for the use of the ports, which were traditionally under the control of the Betsimisaraka, to the extent that the local population was prohibited from trading drift to maximize profits for the Merina and Europeans. This severe economic restriction, together with the severe demands of the Merina for fanampoana (unpaid labor instead of taxes), destroyed the prosperity of the population, who then refused to plant additional plantings that would only make the foreign traders rich anyway. Others fled their ancestral lives and their home villages into the woods to escape the rule of the Merina. Some of these refugees formed bands of bandits who plundered Merina merchant groups along the east coast and occasionally carried out raids further into the interior of the Merina territory; from time to time these groups attacked Merina settlers, European missionaries, government posts and churches.
When the French won Madagascar as a colony in 1896 (Colonie de Madagascar et dépendances), the Betsimisaraka's initial satisfaction with the fall of the Merina quickly turned into anger at French control. In the same year there was an uprising among the Betsimisaraka, in which mainly the bandit gangs and outlaws who had long lived in the eastern rainforests according to their own rules were involved. The movement also spread to the general public and culminated in the Menalamba rebellion (1895) and further resistance to French rule until 1899. These were ultimately suppressed. After the French colonial authorities regained control, they took steps to alleviate the effects of the Merina's suppression of the Betsimisaraka, including through better access to education and paid jobs on plantations. However, this often took place on land that the authorities had previously taken from the Betsimisaraka under duress.
In 1947 the Madagascar uprising against French colonial rule began in Moramanga . The city is located in the Bezanozano Territory in the neighborhood of Betsimisaraka. In the uprising, the Betsimisaraka nationalists fought against French and Senegalese soldiers and struggled unsuccessfully to regain control of the port at Tamatave , the country's most important trading port. Betsimisaraka fighters and civilians suffered heavy casualties and some of the worst human rights abuses occurred in the process, including executions by live airdropping.
The country gained its independence in 1960 and was led by Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , a Betsimisaraka , through the period of the Repoblika Demokratieika Malagasy (Second Republic; 1975-1992) . He had been democratically elected and led the country through the period of the Repoblikan'i Madagasikaray (Third Republic; 1995-2001) before he was forced to give up power after losing to Marc Ravalomanana in the 2001 presidential election . He is still an influential and controversial political figure in Madagascar. His nephew, Roland Ratsiraka , the mayor of Toamasina and presidential candidate, is also an important politician.
society
The Betsimisaraka live mostly on the east coast between Nosy Varika and Antalaha . The historical capital of the Betsimisaraka Kingdom was at Fenoarivo Atsinanana . Social life follows the agricultural year, with the preparation of the fields from October, the rice harvest in May and the winter months from June to September, which are reserved for ancestor worship and other main rituals and customs.
There are clear gender roles among the Betsimisaraka. When a mixed group is walking, women are forbidden to walk before men. Women traditionally have the function of porters, carrying light objects on their heads and heavy objects on their backs. When a woman is present, it is considered ridiculous for a man to wear anything at all. At meals, men use the same spoon to eat as they use to remove food from the communal bowls, while women have to use a separate spoon for scooping. Men are generally responsible for working in the rice fields, buying food, procuring firewood and building family homes and furniture; and they are responsible for discussion and debate on public affairs. Women are responsible for growing vegetables, weeding the rice fields and harvesting and working the rice, as well as fetching water, lighting the hearth fire and preparing meals and weaving.
religion
The religious ceremonies are traditionally performed by a tangalamena . The Betsimisaraka believe in various supernatural beings, such as spirits ( angatra ), mermaids ( zazavavy an-drano ) and the goblin-like kalamoro . Christianization efforts began in the early 1800s, but initially remained largely unsuccessful. During the colonial period, the influence of Christianity slowly grew among the population, but syncretistic practices often arose, mixed with traditional ancestor worship. One idea that arguably stems from Christianity is that the sun or moon was the location of the original Garden of Eden .
Customs
Although there are differences between the northern and southern Betsimisaraka, there are many common customs that bind them together. These include sambatra (circumcision), folanaka (birth of a tenth child), ritual sacrifices by zebus for the ancestors, as well as celebrations for the inauguration of a newly built house. Marriage, death, birth, New Year, and Independence Day are also celebrated in the parishes. Tromba (ritual obsession) is widespread and both men and women serve as spectators and media in these ceremonies.
The indigenous raffia palm was the main fiber used in traditional clothing. The leaves were combed into individual fibers and then individually knotted and woven together. In the various peoples that formed the Betsimisaraka Confederation, there were traditional costumes in which the women combined a short "wrapper" ( simbo ) with a bandeau top ( akanjo ), while the men wore smocks. To this day, raffia clothing is worn by some Betsimisaraka.
mythology
The Betsimisaraka honor lemurs and tell various legends in which lemurs known Betsimisaraka figures come to the rescue. A lemur, for example, saved the life of an ancestor from great danger. In another fairy tale, a group of Betsimisaraka sought protection in a forest from a raiding group of enemies. The enemy followed them into the forest and followed the fugitives according to what they believed to be their voices. When they reached the source of the sounds, they met a group of ghostly-looking lemurs and fled for fear that the Betsimisaraka might have been transformed into animals by magic. According to the idea, the spirits of the ancestors live in the lemurs. It is therefore generally forbidden to kill or even eat lemurs. Captured lemurs must be freed and dead lemurs must be buried using the same burial rites as a person.
Crocodiles are also worshiped with respect and fear. Zebu thighs, whole geese and other sacrifices are often laid down on a daily basis at sandbars, where crocodiles frequent. Amulets to protect against crocodiles are often worn or thrown into the water where the animals gather. Witches and wizards have been associated with crocodiles and there is a belief that they can instruct the animals to kill others and run around among the animals without being attacked. The Betsimisaraka believe witches and wizards agreed to weigh crocodiles by feeding them rice at night. There have been allegations that they led crocodiles through villages at night or were even married to crocodiles.
Fady
Fady , the Malagasy taboos , are omnipresent. There is the notion that it is fady for a man to shake hands with his sister, or for young men to wear shoes while the father lives. The eel is also held sacred. It is forbidden to touch, fish or even eat eels. While there are many Malagasy communities who are fady against the consumption of pork, this is not common among the Betsimisaraka, who often keep pigs in their villages.
Complex taboos and rites are associated with the first birth of a woman. Around the time of birth, she is taken to a secluded birthing house, the komby . The leaves she eats from and the waste the newborn produces are kept in a special container for seven days before being burned. The ashes that are created are smeared on the cheeks and forehead of the mother and baby and must be carried for another seven days. On the fifteenth day both are washed in water to which lime or lemon leaves have been added. This ritual is called ranom-boahangy (bath of the leaves). The community gathers to drink rum and celebrate with wrestling matches while the mother has to stay in the komby. She is not allowed to eat anything except saonjo vegetables and a chicken that has been specially prepared for her. After this ritual she can leave the komby and go back to her usual life.
There is a fady that forbids pronouncing the name of a chief after his death, or any word that was part of the name. The deceased was given a new name after death and all people had to replace the words that had been used in his name with specific synonyms in everyday language. Anyone who used the forbidden words was severely punished and in some cases even executed.
Funeral rites
Some Betsimisaraka, especially those from Maroantsetra , practice the ceremony of Famadihana ( reburial of the dead), similar but not as elaborate as this custom is practiced in the highlands. The dead are only buried in coffins in the southern area of the Betsimisaraka; in the north, they are buried in huts. During mourning, women leave their hair bare and usually also take off the akanjo , while men take off their hats; the mourning period usually lasts two to four months, depending on how closely the person was related to the deceased.
Dance and music
The ceremonial dance music is mostly associated with the tromba ceremonies . The music style is called basesa and is accompanied by an accordion . The traditional Basesa be with kaiamba - shakers accompanied the rhythm; the chants are performed in the local dialect. The accompanying dance is danced with braced arms and heavy foot movements. Modern basesa is performed with drums and electric guitar as well as bass with keyboard or accordion accompaniment and the dance steps were influenced by sega and kwassa kwassa music from Réunion . Basesa is also danced by the Antandroy , but the Betsimisaraka do the dance more slowly. Another major musical style in the region is valse , the Malagasy interpretation of traditional European seafaring waltzes played on the accordion. However, this music is never played during the tromba ceremonies.
language
The Betsimisaraka people speak several dialects of the Malagasy language , which are related to the barito languages of southern Borneo .
economy
The economy is still dominated by agriculture, with vanilla and rice often being planted. Cassava , sweet potatoes , beans, taro , peanuts and numerous vegetables are also grown. In addition, sugar cane, coffee, bananas, pineapples, avocados, breadfruit , mangoes, oranges and lychees are cultivated. Cattle are not kept often; Fish, river crabs, shrimp, hedgehogs and insects are more commonly used to supplement the diet. Home-brewed sugar cane beer , " betsa " and rum, " toaka " are widespread. Spices for food and for perfumes are also produced. A well-known perfume distillery is located in Fenoarivo Atsinanana . Gold, garnet and other precious stones are also extracted in mining.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Shoup 2001: 181.
- ↑ a b c d e f Ogot 1992: 882.
- ^ Bradt, Austin: 2007.
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 25
- ↑ a b c Ogot 1992: 883
- ↑ a b Emoff 2002: 29
- ↑ a b Emoff 2002: 30.
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 29-30.
- ^ Ogot 1992: 871.
- ↑ Ellis 2014: 40.
- ↑ a b Ellis 2014: 28
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 31st
- ↑ a b Ellis 2014: 42.
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 31-32.
- ↑ Ellis 2014: 58.
- ↑ Ellis 2014: 134.
- ↑ Ellis 2014: 143
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 33
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 21st
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 34th
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 35
- ^ Institute for Security Studies: April 2003 Madagascar: Stumbling at the first hurdle? ( Memento from February 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Swiss Peace Foundation May 31, 2007: FAST Update Madagascar: Trends in conflict and cooperation Apr - May 2007.
- ^ A b c d e Bradt, Austin 2007: 26.
- ^ Bradt, Austin 2007: 319.
- ↑ a b Nielssen 2011: 22.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 156.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 157.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 155-156.
- ↑ Ellis 2014: 41.
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 20.
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 13.
- ↑ Nielssen 2011: 2.
- ↑ a b Emoff 2002: xi.
- ^ Condra 2013: 455.
- ^ Condra 2013: 456.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 217-218.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 220-221.
- ↑ Gennep 1904: 280.
- ↑ Gennep 1904: 290.
- ↑ Gennep 1904: 225.
- ↑ Gennep 1904: 167.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 110-112.
- ↑ Gennep 1904: 340.
- ^ Bradt Austin 2007: 307.
- ^ Gennep 1904: 63.
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 69th
- ↑ Emoff 2002: 19.
- ^ Bradt Austin 2007: 26.
- ↑ a b Nielssen 2011: 24.
- ↑ Nielssen 2011: 25.
- ^ Bradt Austin 2007: 319
- ↑ Nielssen 2011: 26.
literature
- Hilary Bradt, Daniel Austin: Madagascar. 9th ed. The Globe Pequot Press Inc., Guilford, CT 2007. [1] ISBN 1-84162-197-8
- Jill Condra: Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing Around the World. ABC Clio, Los Angeles 2013. [2] ISBN 978-0-313-37637-5
- Stephen Ellis: The Rising of the Red Shawls. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA 2014. [3] ISBN 978-1-107-63489-3
- Ron Emoff: Recollecting from the Past: Musical Practice and Spirit Possession on the East Coast of Madagascar. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT 2002. ISBN 978-0-8195-6500-6 [4]
- AV Gennep: Tabou Et Totémisme à Madagascar. Ernest Leroux, Paris 1904. ISBN 978-5-87839-721-6 [5]
- Hilde Nielssen: Ritual Imagination: A Study of Tromba Possession Among the Betsimisaraka in Eastern Madagascar. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands 2011. [6] ISBN 978-90-04-21524-5
- Bethwell A. Ogot: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. UNESCO, Paris 1992. ISBN 978-92-3101711-7 [7]
- John Shoup: Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO, New York 2001. ISBN 978-1-59884-362-0 [8]