Social differentiation
In sociology, differentiation , social differentiation or social differentiation refers to long-term changes in a society that are associated with the emergence or subdivision of social positions , situations or styles of life , as well as the result of such processes, a social differentiation . The term was introduced in 1890 by the German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918) in his work on social differentiation .
Types and forms of social differentiation
Horizontal differentiation
The horizontal differentiation results from the multiplication or specialization of tasks and activities, in particular of professions ( division of labor ) and the associated training paths, as well as of lifestyles.
There is empirical evidence of horizontal differentiation as early as the Neolithic Age , when the increased productivity through the introduction of agriculture made it possible to feed even non-agricultural people. It is reinforced with the emergence of the urban high cultures from the 4th millennium BC. To be observed, for example in Mesopotamia or in China of the early dynasties . There were further “thrusts” of horizontal differentiation in the period of Hellenism , with the development of the Italian city-states in the late Middle Ages and the emergence of manufactories in the modern era . With the beginning of industrialization , which has continued from the first industrial revolution through the emergence of the electrical and chemical to the electronics industry, horizontal differentiation becomes an object of emerging sociology . In recent times, the differentiation of lifestyles has become the focus of sociological analysis.
Vertical differentiation
If social positions are linked to a hierarchical evaluation , this is called vertical differentiation . The most important special case of vertical differentiation is the emergence or subdivision of power and rule structures .
Spatial differentiation
The emergence of social, cultural and economic differences between town and country , between big cities and suburban areas, as well as the socio-spatial subdivision of (for example urban) sub-areas is referred to as spatial differentiation and also subordinated to the generic term social differentiation .
Segmental differentiation
The segmental differentiation is based on the model of simple, small and spatially separated societies of the same kind with face-to-face communication, for example in tribes or villages . All members essentially have the same social roles (compare segmentary society ).
Functional differentiation
If the formation and subdivision of social positions, but also the formation of institutions , is described from the point of view of a functionalist , structural-functional or system-theoretical analysis, they are also referred to as functional differentiation .
See also
- Social change (cultural change, social change)
- Social inequality (unequal distribution of material and immaterial resources in a society)
literature
- Jeffrey C. Alexander: Social Differentiation and Cultural Change. Essays on neo-functionalist social theory. Campus, Frankfurt / New York 2001, ISBN 3-593-34743-1 .
- Émile Durkheim , Niklas Luhmann (preface): About the social division of labor . Study of the organization of higher societies. 2nd Edition. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt 1996, ISBN 3-518-28605-6 .
- Karl Otto Hondrich : Social Differentiation. Long-term analyzes of changes in politics, work and family. Campus, Frankfurt / New York 1982, ISBN 3-593-33142-X .
- Niklas Luhmann (ed.): Social differentiation. To the story of an idea. VS, Wiesbaden 1997, ISBN 3-531-11708-4 .
- Renate Mayntz et al. a .: Differentiation and independence. For the development of social subsystems. Campus, Frankfurt / New York 1988, ISBN 3-593-34030-5 .
- Uwe Schimank : Theories of social differentiation. 2nd Edition. Leske Budrich, Opladen 1996, ISBN 3-8252-1886-4 .
- Uwe Schimank: Differentiation and integration of modern society. Volume 1: Contributions to the actor-centered differentiation theory. VS, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-531-14683-1 .
- Georg Simmel : About social differentiation. In: Complete edition: Essays 1887–1890 , 2nd edition. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt 1999, ISBN 3-518-57952-5 (first published 1890).
- Annette Spellerberg: Social differentiation through lifestyles. An empirical study of the quality of life in West and East Germany. Sigma, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-89404-155-2 .
- Herbert Spencer : Structure, Function and Evolution. Joseph, London 1971, ISBN 0-7181-0748-9 .
- Veronika Tacke : Organization and social differentiation. VS, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 3-531-13442-6 .
Criticism and further development:
- Thomas Schwinn : Differentiation without society. Change of a sociological concept. Velbrück, Weilerswist 2001, ISBN 3-934730-36-1 .
- Thomas Schwinn (ed.): Differentiation and social inequality. The two sociologies and their connection. Humanities, Frankfurt 2004, ISBN 3-934157-15-7 .
- Thomas Schwinn, Jens Greve, Clemens Kroneberg (eds.): Social differentiation: gains in knowledge of action and system theory approaches. VS, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-17388-7 .
Application to special topics:
- Jürgen Brockmann: The differentiation of the Soviet social structure. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1978, ISBN 3-447-01941-7 .
- Ingrid Gogolin , Bernhard Nauck : Migration, social differentiation and education. Results of the research priority program FABER. Leske Budrich, Opladen 2000, ISBN 3-8100-2257-8 .
- Paraskevi Grekopoulou: The Middle Classes in Greece. Development and social differentiation since 1950. A contribution to the social structure analysis of Greece (= European university publications. Volume 22). Lang, Frankfurt a. a. 1995, ISBN 3-631-46999-3 .
- Klaus Holz : Citizenship: social differentiation and political inclusion. Westdeutscher Verlag, Wiesbaden 2002, ISBN 3-531-14000-0 .
- Dirk Jurich: State Socialism and Social Differentiation. Lit, Berlin / Münster 2006, ISBN 3-8258-9893-8 .
- Rainer Unger: Social differentiation of active life expectancy in an international comparison. A longitudinal study using data from the Socio-Economic Panel and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Deutscher Universitätsverlag, Wiesbaden 2003, ISBN 3-8244-4533-6 .