Functional differentiation

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In sociological systems theory , functional differentiation means that individual subsystems develop within a social system , each of which fulfills a specific function for the overall system. These subsystems are also called functional systems.

Parsons and Luhmann

The term is an integral part of the sociology of Niklas Luhmann , who uses it for the theoretical analysis of society . Examples of social subsystems are, according to Luhmann, the “separation of true and untrue knowledge” ( science ) or “generally binding decision-making” ( politics ). Classics of differentiation theory are u. a. Herbert Spencer , Émile Durkheim and Georg Simmel .

Luhmann inherited the concept from Talcott Parsons , in whose theory of the evolution of societies it plays a key role. Parsons and Luhmann agree that the functional differentiation of society is an " evolutionary achievement". It is almost “the” hallmark of modernity .

The difference between the two can be seen in the reference points of the approaches: Parsons understands functions as derived from the normative structural framework of a society. One could say in a catchphrase : functions follow norms. - Social action is embedded in normative reference schemes. Only in this way can anomic drifting apart of systemic own rationales prevented and integrative society as a whole reason be guaranteed.

Luhmann's perspective is different. In his case, it is autonomous functional systems that give themselves their structures depending on needs and external requirements ( autopoiesis ). Whether an overarching value is sought or whether it is mere cost-benefit calculations that determine the choice of structure - it is up to the (sociological) observer to analyze this.

Function systems according to Luhmann

According to Luhmann, each individual subsystem looks at the overall system from a different perspective. For example, the science subsystem observes processes in the system only according to whether something is true or not; the politics subsystem raises the question of whether or not power can be increased; and the economy cares only about whether payments are made or not. Further in this sense autonomous sub-systems are art , religion , intimate relationships , education , law and family .

Functional systems in Luhmann's sense are not to be confused with organizations (which for their part are mostly oriented primarily towards certain functional systems, such as parties in politics, companies in business, galleries in art, hospitals in medicine). The economic system, for example, is reproduced wherever a payment is made, and not just in “the economy” in the everyday sense (i.e. between companies). The legal system is not only reproduced in courtrooms, but everywhere in the world where the distinction between right and wrong is used in a communication .

“A head of the agency says to the woman who has come to campaign for her husband to be promoted because she sees how much he is suffering from being denied promotion: I do not have the right to speak to you about official matters. He says it to get rid of them; but this is only his motive. As we understand it, communication itself is communication in the legal system. "

The communication event in this example is an element in the right function system. How official or how inconspicuous the event is does not matter. The system arises (and then fulfills its function) because, with this simple distinction right / wrong, all other communications that are based on the same simple distinction can potentially be related to one another. The communication even stimulates the system to reproduce because it seeks (or claims) to be networked with communications of the same system and claims the need for further communications in the legal system (for example, when the problem is disputed in court and the statement is questioned).

From the point of view of the head of the authority, the law fulfills the function of not allowing a part of his world to become too complicated. From a social perspective, it is the function of the functional systems to direct an immense number of communications to a specific area of ​​society at any location and with the participation of any participant. This division is so successful that modern society is structured along its specific functions and social communication is also structured with them. With this halfway manageable increase in complexity, the extremely complex modern society can keep its own complexity in check.

One and the same social process can be simultaneously assessed and processed differently by different subsystems ( structural coupling ). Function systems are therefore thematically open. Luhmann expressly excludes a "functional primacy", that is, the primacy of a subsystem. This raises the question of the conditions for the possibility of socially rational action as well as the control of ecological and social problems.

Inclusion and exclusion

The functional systems are designed to include all available persons in their communication ( social inclusion ), either by contributing to the performance of the subsystem themselves , or by observing and critically questioning its functioning as the “ audience ”. Examples are the expansion of the right to vote and of educational opportunities in the course of democratic or educational expansion .

Nevertheless, in reality people are unequivocally excluded from certain subsystems ( exclusion ). For example, scientific amateurs are not allowed to participate in the discourse in scientific organizations, i.e. in academic institutes and specialist journals. These organizations, oriented towards the coding of the scientific system (and necessary for the differentiation of the functional system), recruit the personnel that science needs to continue its function, namely to produce truths, according to their own standards and viewpoints. The subsystems as strengthen existing distinctions ( "positive" (favorable) discrimination ) ever (positive discrimination): who or about even money has, gets easier credit , who had good grades, often gets back better, who have scientific prestige has , better publication opportunities open up, etc. (“ Matthew Effect ” - “He who has, is given”). As a self-reinforcing process, positive feedback and path dependency of a system and the like cause and stabilize . U. a hyperinclusion of individual groups of people, e.g. B. the top management.

Internal differentiation of subsystems

Both Parsons and Luhmann work out the concept of functional differentiation beyond the general level of society to the individual subsystems and speak of internal or internal differentiation. Each of the differentiated social systems internally repeats the classification according to functional aspects and the associated role expectations and communication opportunities.

For example, according to Luhmann, the political system is divided internally into the subsystems of party politics , administration and the public , while Parsons uses the four-function or AGIL scheme . At the level of society as a whole, for example, politics fulfills the function of “goal attainment” and is divided internally into adaptive, goal-realizing, integrative and culturally value-conveying subsystems and structural components.

History of differentiation forms

The theory of functional differentiation according to Luhmann assumes that the structure of society has changed evolutionarily over time, driven by an increasingly complex society. After the earliest differentiation according to gender and age, a differentiation follows in archaic societies into segments (families, clans , villages , houses), between which there is no gap. With the early modern era, this order was replaced by hierarchical differentiations in layers ( stratification ) and in the center / periphery. Outside the upper class or the centers (cities), however, the segmental separation remains. With the increasing complexity of society around the 18th century, the structural change in the direction of functional differentiation began in Europe, which is the primary structure of world society today.

The analysis under the condition of functional differentiation is complicated by the fact that the historically preceding forms such as stratification and segmentation are currently co-present with it. Stratification, for example, is no longer a basic premise of society, but it is precisely because of the effects of functional differentiation that it is “and even more so” as inequality between “more or less obvious social classes”. Segmental differentiation can be found today depending on the function “for example as differentiation between nation states in politics, companies in business, schools in the educational system”.

The concept of social differentiation , which goes back to Georg Simmel , enables functional differentiation to be presented as just one - albeit central - aspect of sociological analysis.

Future forecasts

Functional differentiation is a historically grown, evolutionary and therefore contingent phenomenon. It could also be different, for example when society changes, especially in terms of its complexity. Since it does this all the time, the question can be asked whether other forms of differentiation are conceivable in addition to or instead of functional differentiation.

The systems theorist and Luhmann student Dirk Baecker emphasizes the role of printing as a trigger for functional differentiation, as general literacy made it necessary to organize thematic sub-areas. In this sense, the electronic media, media networking and globalization (i.e. the end of the printing society) could mean an end to functional differentiation as a primary form. In any case, the importance of networks whose communications are not primarily based on the key differences of the functional systems is increasing. The form of this new differentiation principle can only be "guessed at, namely the network, but not its structure".

literature

  • Talcott Parsons : Theoretical Orientations on Modern Societies. In: Talcott Parsons: Politics and Social Structure. Free Press et al., New York NY 1969, pp. 34-57.
  • Niklas Luhmann : Differentiation of Society. In: Canadian Journal of Sociology. Volume 2, No. 1, 1977, pp. 29-53, doi : 10.2307 / 3340510 .
  • Claudio Baraldi, Giancarlo Corsi, Elena Esposito: GLU. Glossary on Niklas Luhmann's theory of social systems (= Suhrkamp-Taschenbuch Wissenschaft. 1226). Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1997, ISBN 3-518-28826-1 , pp. 65-71.
  • Markus Holzinger: The theory of functional differentiation as an integrative program of a modern sociology? A response to Uwe Schimank's analytical model from a globally comparative perspective. In: Journal for Theoretical Sociology. Volume 6, No. 1, 2017, ISSN  2195-0695 , pp. 44-73.

Specific functional systems:

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Niklas Luhmann: The right of society . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1993, ISBN 3-518-28783-4 , pp. 67 f .
  2. ↑ P. Erfurt Sandhu: Persistent Homogeneity in Top Management. Organizational Path Dependence in Leadership Selection. P. 167–208: Chapters 6 and 7 (English-language doctoral thesis 2013 Department of Economics at the Free University of Berlin; online at d-nb.info; short version in German: p. 215).
  3. ↑ Claudio Baraldi, Giancarlo Corsi, Elena Esposito: GLU. Glossary on Niklas Luhmann's theory of social systems . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1997, ISBN 3-518-28826-1 , pp. 65-68 .
  4. ↑ a b Claudio Baraldi, Giancarlo Corsi, Elena Esposito: GLU. Glossary on Niklas Luhmann's theory of social systems . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1997, p. 70 f .
  5. ↑ Dirk Baecker : Why society? Kadmos, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-931659-99-8 .