History of click spelling
The history of the clicking sound case , the history of the writing of clicking sounds in southern Africa represents. Different letters had been at different times to override these sounds in different languages of the region in use as parts of Latin writing system was in use. The current IPA letters were designed by Johann Georg Krönlein . They were spread by Karl Richard Lepsius and then by Wilhelm Bleek .
Also influential were Clement Doke and Douglas Beach , who used a different system that was used alongside the IPA system from 1921 to 1989 .
The different languages used different orthographies , usually based on either the Lepsius alphabet or the Latin alphabet . The usage changed over time or between different states. Latin letters such as cqx ç have uppercase forms , as opposed to the vertical line based letters ǀ ǃ ǁ ǂ.
Different systems
In the early 19th century, German and English mission organizations used the letters cqx as the basis for writing click sounds in Zulu , which otherwise were not needed for writing this language. However, this was confusing to linguistics in general , as each of these letters had different uses as well. There have been various “ad hoc” approaches to creating letters for click sounds - often geometric and iconic symbols. For example, the Norwegian Mission used ⟨⚡︎⟩ (a z -like zigzag line) for c (possibly in connection with the use of both z and c for dental affricates) for the Zulu , a doubled ⚡︎ (a ξ -like zigzag line) for x (possibly not by chance, the Greek ξ is written down as x ), and the same letter with a trema for q .
Ultimately the most successful approach was that of Krönlein, which was disseminated by Lepsius. Doke later created a different system based on an empirically inspired view of the nature of clicks.
| bilabial | dental | alveolar | lateral | palatal | retroflex | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Boyce (1834) | c | q | x | qc | ||
| Schreuder (1850) | ⚡︎ | ⚡︎͉̈ | ⚡︎͉ | |||
| Lepsius (1854) | ı} | ı̣ | ıı | ı́ (A) | ||
| Tindall (1858) | c | q | x | v | ||
| IPA (1921) | ʇ | ʗ | ʖ | |||
| Doke (1925) | ʇ | ʗ | ʖ | ↆ (B) | ѱ | |
| Engelbrecht (1928) | c | q | x | ç | ||
| Beach (1938) | ʘ (C) | ʇ | ʗ | ʖ | ⨎ | |
| IPA (1989) | ʘ | ǀ | ǃ | ǁ | ǂ | (D) |
| Typewriter replacement symbols | @ | / | ! | // | § or = |
In addition to the difference in the letter design (variants of the vertical line in Lepsius, modifications of Latin letters in Doke and Beach) there was a conceptual difference:
- Lepsius used a single letter as the basis for all click sounds of the same place of articulation ("Influx") and added a second letter or a diacritical mark for the type of articulation ("Efflux"), which he saw as two separate sounds (the actual click and Lepsius explained his system as follows: “The essence of this is the peculiar partial inhibition and even withdrawal of the breath, which seems to us to be best expressed by a simple hyphen. If we combine this with our usual class symbols for the cerebral and the palatal, only the lateral remains, which is the strongest sound. We denote it with two lines. Since the associated gutturals obviously cannot form a sound unit with the clicks, but only a composition, we simply let them follow, as with the diphtongs. So we get the overview: « [Figure above right]
- Doke, on the other hand, used a separate letter for each unvoiced ( Tenuis ), voiced and nasal click sound; thus he looked at every different than consonants, on the model of the Latin alphabet, in which each homorgane group of three non-clicks closure sounds are also considered as different consonants ( pbm, tdn, cj ñ, kg N ).
Dokes letters for nasal clicking sounds based on the letter ⟨ n ⟩, in continuation of the pattern for the egressiven nasal consonant ⟨ m ɱ n ɲ ɳ ŋ ɴ ⟩. For example, his letter for the dental nasal click sound was ⟨ȵ⟩ ; the alveolar was similar but with the curl on the left leg; the lateral one with a curl on both legs; the reto flexes and the palatal were ɲ, N with one turn on the respective free leg: 
. The letters of the voiced click sounds were designed more individually, some were simply inverted versions of the letters for the corresponding unvoiced sounds. The voiceless / voiced / pairs were ⟨ʇ ɣ⟩ (the latter had not yet been added to IPA as a letter for the voiced velar fricative ), ⟨ʗ ?⟩ , ⟨ѱ ⋔⟩ , similar to ⟨ↆ⟩ and its head turned shape, and laterally ⟨ ʖ ⟩ and a double loop (head ꔛ excepted) 
.
Doke's letters were proposed for inclusion in Unicode , but this proposal has not yet been finally decided (as of March 2020, Unicode version 13).
Beach wrote about Khoekhoegowab and therefore did not need letters for voiced clicks; he drafted letters for nasal clicking sounds by installed a turn at the bottom of the letter for the voiceless clicking sounds: double-cross painted ⟨ ʆ ⟩ for nasal ⟨ ⨎ ⟩, stretched ⟨ ɕ ⟩ for nasal ⟨ ʗ ⟩, head posed ⟨ ȶ ⟩ for nasal ⟨ ʇ ⟩ (but with the winding down), and a letter similar to a shell free ⟨ ʓ ⟩ for nasal ⟨ ʖ ⟩: 
.
Doke and Beach identified both aspirated clicking sounds with a trailing h ⟨ ʇh ʗh ʖh ⨎h ⟩, and (nasalized) glottalized clicking sounds followed by the symbol for a " glottal stop " ⟨ ʇʔ ʗʔ ʖʔ ⨎ʔ ⟩. Beach also the "affricate contour clicks" wrote with a subsequent x ⟨ ʇx ʗx ʖx ⨎x ⟩.
Development of Phonetic Transcription
Doke conducted "admirable" experiments on the nature of clicks. Nonetheless, in his influential work on "Bushman Languages", Bleek rejected Doke's orthography on theoretical grounds, arguing that Doke's letters each represent two sounds (a combination of the implosive sound with an expulsion of breath, i.e., influx and efflux). Thus, in Doke's orthography, the clicks themselves could not be written, since they could not themselves be described as voiceless, voiced or nasal. Bleek therefore used digraphs based on the Lepsius letters , as Lepsius himself had done for the same reason.
Ironically, linguists have since considered co-articulation to be inherent in the Lepsius letters, as the "influx" can never occur on its own; hence they use the simple letters for the voiceless click sounds rather than an abstract "click property" like Bleek did. Nonetheless, after the Lepsius letters became standard (and even when the Doke letters were officially included in the IPA, only the letters for the unvoiced clicks were included and considered conceptually equivalent to the Lepsius letters), linguists today must if if you want to reflect the prevailing view and use IPA, come back to diacritical marks that are not used for non-click consonants.
Below is the evolution of formal click-sound transcription, from Bleek's co-articulated consonant-reflecting digraphs, to single-letter ligatures , to full IPA use with diacritical marks, along with the equivalent treatment of unvoiced, voiced, and nasal non-clicks -Verschlusslauten [tdn] (for illustration).
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Historical orthographies
Spelled languages with click sounds generally use either an alphabet based on the Lepsius alphabet, with digraphs / trigraphs based on the vertical bar letters, or the Zulu alphabet, which is based on cqx for click sounds . In the latter case, there are different conventions for palatal clicks. Some languages have used different orthographies over time. For example, Khoekhoegowab had the following orthographies (shown using the example of the palatal click sounds):
| modern | ǂguis | ǂa | ǂham | ǂnu |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Beach (1938) | ⨎uis | ⨎ʔa | ⨎ham | ⨎nu |
| Tindall (1858) | vɡuis | va | vham | vnu |
Historical spelling in Latin was based on the following combinations of letters:
| dental | alveolar | lateral | palatal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Xhosa (1834) | c | q | x | qc (reported for single words only) |
| Khoekhoegowab (1858) | c | q | x | v |
| Juǀʼhoan (1987–1994) | c | q | x | ç |
| Naro (since 2001) | c | q | x | tc (as a typewriter version of the Juǀʼhoan- "ç", which was also initially used for Naro) |
There are two prevalent conventions for writing the type of articulation ("efflux") that are used with both Lepsius and Zulu orthographies. One uses g for voiced and x for affricative clicks, the other uses d for voiced and g for affricative clicks. Both use n for nasal clicks, but these letters can come before or after the basic letter. For the sake of simplicity, the following table only lists the lateral clicks.
| unvoiced | voiced | nasal | glottalized | aspirated | affected | affects ejectively |
voiceless nasal |
mumbled | mumbled nasally |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zulu | > approx. 1850 | x | xg (A) | xn | xh | ||||||
| Khoekhoegowab | modern | ǁg | ǁn | ǁ | ǁkh | ǁh | |||||
| 1858 | xg (B) | ||||||||||
| Naro | > 2001 | x | dx | nx | xʼ | xh | xg | xg ' | |||
| Juǀʼhoan | modern | ǁ | gǁ | nǁ | ǁʼ | ǁh | ǁx, gǁx | ǁk, gǁk | ǁʼh | gǁh | nǁh |
| 1975 | ǁxʼ, gǁxʼ | nǁʼh | |||||||||
| 1987 | x | dx | nx | xʼ | xh | xg, dxg | xg ', dxg' | xʼh | dxh | nxh | |
| Hadza | x | nx | xx | xh | |||||||
| Sandawe | x | gx | nx | xʼ | xh | ||||||
Remarks
- ↑ a b The Lepsius letter is a short vertical line, neither with upper nor with lower length (i.e. with the same height as the letter x) and always without serifs . It is not included in Unicode (as of March 2020, Unicode Version 13), so it is shown here in tables and quotations with a dotted i (“ı”).
Individual evidence
- ^ Douglas Martyn Beach: The phonetics of the Hottentot language . W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., London 1938, page 288 ff.
- ↑ a b c C. R. Lepsius: The general linguistic alphabet: Principles of the transfer of foreign writing systems and previously unwritten languages into European letters . Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz, Berlin 1855, pages 45–47, scan in Google book search
- ↑ CR Lepsius: Standand Alphabet for Reducing Unwritten Languages and Foreign Graphic Systems to a Uniform Orthography in European Letters . 2nd edition, London / Berlin 1863, pages 79–83, scan in Google book search
- ^ WHI Bleek: A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages. London, Trübner & Co., (1862: Part I; 1869: Part II; scan in the Google book search), Part I, pages 11–15
- ^ Clement M. Doke: An outline of the phonetics of the language of the ʗhʗ: Bushman of the North-West Kalahari, 1925, Bantu Studies 2: 129–166.
- ^ Clement M. Doke: The phonetics of the Zulu language . Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand Press, 1926 (1969)
- ^ Douglas Martyn Beach: The phonetics of the Hottentot language . W. Heffer & Sons Ltd, London 1938
- ↑ a b c H. PS Schreuder: Grammatik for Zulu-Sproget , Christiania 1850, page 1, scan in the Google book search
- ↑ a b William Binnington Boyce, A grammar of the language Kafir , London 1834, 2nd ed. ( "A grammar of the kaffir language") in 1844, Page 2, scanning in the Google Book Search
-
^ Henry Tindall, A grammar and vocabulary of the Namaqua-Hottentot language , 1858, pp. 13-14, scan in the Google book search
Tindall's complete scheme is:- c ch ck cg ckh cn
- q qh qk qg qkh qn
- x xh xk xg xkh xn
- v vh vk vg vkh vn
- ^ L'écriture phonétique internationale (second edition)
- ^ JA Engelbrecht, Studies oor Korannataal . Annale van the Universiteit van Stellenbosch. Cape Town 1928.
- ^ Oswin Köhler et al .: The symbols for clicks . In: Journal of the International Phonetic Association (1988) 18: 2, pp. 140-142.
- ^ A b Johanna Christina Brugman: Segments, Tones and Distribution in Khoekhoe Prosody. (PDF) August 2009, pp. 20-21 , archived from the original on March 6, 2019 ; Retrieved August 25, 2013 (English, dissertation, Cornell University).
- ^ Michael Everson : Proposal to add phonetic click characters to the UCS. (PDF) ISO / IEC JTC1 / SC2 / WG2, Document N2790, June 10, 2004, accessed on October 7, 2013 (English).
- ^ DF Bleek, 1923, "Note on Bushman Orthography," Bantu Studies , 2: 1: 71-74
-
↑ a b Juǀʼhoan language, alphabet and pronunciation. Omniglot , accessed March 18, 2020 . Alphabet chart for Juǀʼhoan - includes the 1975, 1987 and 1994 orthographies. ( Excel sheet) Omniglot, accessed March 18, 2020 .