Illegal logging

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Illegal logging in Cambodia ( Chuor Phnom Krâvanh )
Illegal deforestation in Tambon Donpao, Mae Wang National Park, Chiang Mai Province , Thailand 2011

Illegal logging describes a multitude of activities which, in addition to harvesting, also include the transport and sale of wood in violation of national laws. It causes considerable economic damage and represents one of the most serious threats to the conservation of ecologically valuable forests, prevents sustainable forest management and is one of the main causes of deforestation in many parts of the world. Illegal logging is therefore closely linked to the phenomenon of desertification and is also an important aspect in shaping development policy . For this reason, illegal logging is an area that is given top priority , especially within international forest policy .

Definitions

Illegal export of rosewood , Marojejy National Park, Madagascar , March 2005

There are a number of definitions for illegal logging, which differ mainly in the details. In general, environmental NGOs define illegal logging more broadly as state or intergovernmental organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). According to the environmental organization FERN , illegal logging not only includes the sale but also the purchase of illegally logged or transported wood. In contrast to the above definition, this also criminalizes timber importers, for example in Central Europe.

A total of up to 17 different aspects can be taken into account when defining illegal logging. The only feature common to all definitions is the violation of logging regulations. The theft of forest products is only taken into account by the FAO, price distortions on the timber markets only by the FAO and the joint work of the WWF with the World Bank. Of all the term definitions, a study by the ITTO and that of the WWF-World Bank cooperative mentioned, with 12 of the 17 characteristics, find the most extensive.

Another approach to identifying illegal logging is to clearly define legal measures based on criteria and indicators. The legal origin of the wood, the payment, the work processes in the forest, related criminal activities and the transport of wood are used.

causes

Findings about the causes and facilitating circumstances of illegal logging are usually based on case studies in developing countries, where the problem is more frequent and worse.

One of the main driving forces behind the illegal extraction of wood from forests is poverty (direct use of wood as fuel and construction wood). In addition, there are financial incentives of various magnitudes (only income opportunity, hoped for improvement in living conditions, competitive pressure) due to the demand for cheap wood on regional, national or international markets. In the case of industrial use, this is excess capacity in production. Prerequisites or favorable factors are weak political structures, i.e. ineffective or complicated unworkable laws, a lack of transparency in forest policy decision-making processes, and weak civil society structures and a lack of participation in legitimate non-state interests. Another prerequisite is insufficient capacity to enforce the law , which in turn is due to poor staffing and financial resources in the relevant bodies. However, there is often also a lack of political will to strengthen law enforcement. Corruption affects all levels of administration here , but can also be found in many commercial companies. There is a clear correlation between the extent of corruption in a country and the extent of activities in the forest and timber sector that are considered illegal. Unclear ownership structures in the forest encourage illegal logging. Ultimately, a major obstacle to law enforcement is the lack of information about the extent, specific causes and what is going on of illegal activity in the area.

There are interactions between measures taken by individual states against illegal logging and the statistical or actual increase in these activities both in this state and (depending on the type of measure) in other states. The tightening of laws or their enforcement can mean that bureaucratic processes become more complicated . If these measures do not take structural circumstances (poverty, corruption) into account, then such measures can have the opposite effect and have a favorable effect on illegal behavior. The same applies to the tightening of laws while the insufficient capacity to enforce these legal acts remains the same. In this case, the amount of illegal logging increases nominally through the criminalization of common practices.

The interaction between national measures against illegal logging and illegal activities in other countries is due to cross-border (legal or illegal) trade. Due to protective measures taken by the People's Republic of China for forests, imports from neighboring countries such as Myanmar and Russia increased, which in turn contributed to the intensification of illegal logging in these countries. The timber harvest ban in Thailand in 1989 also increased both imports and illegal logging in Cambodia , Laos and Myanmar.

Effects

In addition to the effects of illegal timber harvesting measures on the economic sustainability level of the forest operations concerned (loss of capital due to loss of income, reduction in production capacity, disruption of economic planning), the ecosystems of forests are affected, particularly in the case of felling measures in nature reserves and primary forests. The impacts vary in quality and size depending on the extent of illegal logging and the value of the ecosystem (biodiversity, vulnerability). Disturbances that are imperceptible or barely perceptible, or even complete destruction of the ecosystem (large-scale clear cuts, resulting in irreversible deforestation in the medium to long term) are possible.

In addition, various effects on the economy can be measured. Illegal logging is often associated with reduced tax income due to the worsened economic situation of the forest enterprises, but above all due to tax evasion in all links of the market chain and production. Illegal structures are strengthened through corruption and its normalization. When wood is smuggled, the infrastructure for illegal cross-border trade in other goods (intoxicants, war equipment and the like) is created.

Poverty is a major cause of illegal activities in the forest sector. Although a lot of money flows into the affected regions through the illegal sale of wood, particularly low-income households hardly benefit from it. As a rule, the main beneficiaries are influential community members and social elites . Long-term economic losses are caused by the persistent poverty and damage to the environment.

Manifestations

Illegal logging occurs in different forms for different purposes. One can therefore apply several categories.

To secure the livelihood , wood is felled on a small scale by private individuals who, due to poverty, cannot legally obtain the wood they need to survive. This is usually firewood , less often construction material. A state law enforcement is not possible and often not desired. This manifestation is typical for Central Asia and some countries in the Balkans.

Central Vietnam, November 2009

In order to improve living conditions, wood is felled by private individuals without legal access to forest resources on a small scale in public forests in order to sell it for the purpose of increasing household income. Law enforcement often fails due to the capacities of the executive branch or because of corruption. These activities are partly supported by commercial buyers. Often times, public forest administrations are involved in these types of activities. Forestry legislation is perceived as being too bureaucratic or duties and taxes appear unreasonably high. In Central Europe, this type of illegal logging takes place mainly in private forests. Logging is done in the forests of urban forest owners who, due to the distance, do not or cannot pay any attention to their forest.

Very large illegal logging occurs in the pursuit of commercial goals by industry. This involves high-ranking members of forest administrations and relevant state bodies from the judiciary or regional governments who abuse their official powers to enable commercial forest companies to illegally log large-scale timber in state forests and nature reserves.

Conflict timber is a special form of illegal logging that is carried out by at least one conflicting party to finance acts of war, as was the case in Liberia during the time of the civil war. This resulted in trade sanctions by the United Nations Security Council on timber from Liberia. Other African countries where conflict timber is traded are the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Guinea and Sierra Leone . In Southeast Asia, Myanmar and Cambodia are or were affected.

Depending on the definition, a large number of other illegal activities can be identified, which are summarized under the term illegal logging. These include the sale of concessions and other rights of use below or above the market value , tax evasion and the avoidance of tax payments and customs duties , as well as non-compliance with employee rights and the unlicensed processing of wood.

The sale of rights of use while disregarding free competition as a criminal act in the forest sector requires a high degree of corruption on the part of senior representatives of the forest administration. They receive bribes for selling wood, concessions and other usage rights to certain companies at below their market value. Sales negotiations are conducted discreetly and only with certain buyers. On the other hand, these goods and services can also be sold to the private sector at an exaggerated price, with the difference being embezzled by the servant. For this trafficking method to work, there must be weaknesses in financial control.

In the case of tax evasion and the evasion of taxes, incorrect information about the amount of wood felled by forest entrepreneurs or processed in companies is typical. Likewise, the actual levels of wages and salaries within a company are stated well below the actual value, or the persons concerned are employed as illegal workers. In this way, the companies can save taxes and social security contributions. The fight against this type of criminal trafficking is incumbent on the tax authorities, but the success can be increased by cooperation with the forest administration.

Non-compliance with employee rights includes any type of non-compliance with social standards. In addition to employment without a contractual basis, this concerns working hours, accident prevention measures , minimum wages and the like. The causes are a lack of control resources and a low level of organization among employees. Options for action exist in the sanctioning of such establishments by the state authorities.

The unlicensed processing of wood is another form of illegal logging. It is possible, for example, that sawmills operate without official permission. This leads to an increased demand for wood, which, however, cannot always be met. This not only affects (private or public) forest ownership; tax revenue is also lost. On the other hand, illegal wood processing companies also offer their employees income opportunities.

If the increased demand or the increased felling does not lead to the annual possible cutting rate being exceeded, the legalization of these companies is the best option to reduce the volume of illegal logging. On the other hand, if the local demand is stimulated beyond this level, the only option is to reduce the demand or to legally procure the necessary wood from a greater distance. Since enforcing forest laws alone is difficult and creates conflict, it is advisable to use a cross-sectoral strategy to compensate for the loss of income for those affected.

Situation in certain countries and regions

Data and relevant information on the extent of illegal logging in the various countries of the world are not always available in sufficient quality and quantity. Restrictions arise on the nature and extent of illegal activities, the relevance of the forest sector to a national economy, the priority given to the phenomenon by governments, freedom of expression and freedom of the press, and the strength and influence of NGOs and other international interests. In addition to government sources, the publications of ENGOs (Environmental Non Governmental Organizations) are also available. Information is also published by the mass media and companies and associations in the forest and wood industry .

For this reason, the published figures on the extent of illegal logging must always be critically examined. For national or regional governments, publishing high estimates can be tantamount to accusing them of failing to legislate, or worse, being involved in corruption and bribery . State institutions, i.e. ministries or statistical offices, also only record the reported cases of illegal logging. It can be assumed that, due to the unlawful nature of the phenomenon, government data usually greatly underestimates the extent of reality.

On the other hand, ENGOs are most likely to publish the most alarming figures to draw attention to potential or existing grievances, to emphasize the potential of voluntary certification of sustainable forestry in this context, and to call for measures to be taken to protect forests. Often, however, the data from ENGOs is the only source available to governments or intergovernmental organizations such as the World Bank.

In turn, companies in the forest sector consider the assessment of a high level of illegal logging as potentially damaging in terms of their public image, as well as their competitiveness and that of wood as a raw material compared to other materials.

Balkans

The countries of the Balkans usually include the states that arose from the break-up of Yugoslavia, as well as Albania, Romania and Bulgaria. Overall, very little data is available on the extent of illegal logging in this region.

According to government reports, less than 1% of the timber in Bulgaria was felled illegally in 2003. The World Bank has seen a large increase in criminal activity over the last few years and is currently estimating 5 to 15%. The WWF estimates the volume of illegal logging in Bulgaria at 3.7 million m 3 . However, 73% of this is firewood, the rest is processed in the wood industry. The volume mentioned corresponds to 45% of the annual harvest rate, which is exceeded by 1.5 million m 3 when adding up the legal and illegal logging . Corruption is cited as the main cause of criminal activity.

Little information is available on the extent of illegal logging in Romania. A WWF study from 2005 pursued the approach of estimating the extent of illegal logging by calculating the differences between wood production and wood processing (modified by import and export). The study comes to the conclusion that serious calculations based on the available data are currently not possible. State statistics put the extent of illegal logging at around 1%. However, there is a strong link between rural poverty and illegal harvesting. Wood is the main source of energy there.

China

China has also been criticized several times in the past.

Indonesia

Indonesia has one of the highest absolute deforestation rates on earth. Forecasts by the United Nations Environment Program in 2008 predicted that 98% of forests would have degraded or disappeared by 2022. Illegal logging as one of the main driving forces has been discussed for a long time in this context and is perceived as a crucial problem for the development of the country's forestry sector. 2004 estimates by CIFOR amounted to around 80% of the output of the forest and wood sector. The American Forest & Paper Association classified 60% of production, 55% of plywood exports, and 100% of roundwood exports from Indonesia as "suspect" in the same year.

However, Indonesia has now qualified for FLEGT, and since November 15, 2016, it has been the first partner country to issue FLEGT licenses for wood exports. According to the EU Commission, only a fifth of the wood in Indonesia was legally felled in 2002, while in 2016 over 90 percent of wood exports came from factories and forests that are monitored by independent bodies.

Russia

Due to the relatively high imports of wood from Russia into the EU, the forestry of this country in general, and in particular illegal logging, is increasingly in the focus of ENGOs and the mass media. However, the publications of ENGOs are usually the only information available on the topic. The numbers and analyzes focus on the Asian part of Russia. In this context, the WWF in particular provides the data that are also used by the World Bank and other institutions. The mass media also mainly use the figures from WWF, followed by publications from Greenpeace .

In order to assess the extent of illegal logging, the WWF compared the figures on consumption in the woodworking and processing industry with the official figures on logging, corrected by exports and imports . The difference allows conclusions to be drawn about the extent of the illegal activities. According to the WWF, this resulted in 11.3 million m 3 . Inaccuracies arise from the private use of illegally felled wood, e.g. B. for firewood production in rural areas.

According to the data from the Ministry of Natural Resources, which is also responsible for the forest, between 1996 and 2002, 500,000 m 3 to just under 1 million m 3 per year were illegally felled, with the peak of development around the year 2000. The economic loss for this year was estimated at around 5.5 billion RUR (around 180 million euros). The proportion of illegal logging is therefore less than 1% of the total logging volume in the country. On the other hand, an official country report also estimates the actual extent to be 5 to 10%.

Greenpeace estimates that 20% of the timber felled. The WWF calculates 27% to 36% at the national level. However, the proportions can vary greatly in individual regions. The proportion of illegally felled wood reaches 50 to 70% in the Far East and 70 to 100% in the Caucasus. The financial loss is estimated at $ 1 billion by WWF, mainly due to tax evasion. The calculation method was not specified.

On average, around 110 million m 3 of wood has been harvested in Russia every year since the mid-1990s . In contrast, there is annual growth of around 510 million m 3 . Assuming, according to the most common figures from WWF, a share of 20% illegally felled wood of the total wood harvested in Russia per year, this results in a real total felled of 137.5 million m 3 in relation to the whole country with an illegal volume of 27.5 million m 3 . This corresponds to a net increase in wood of 372 million m 3 per year (but this alone does not mean that Russia's forestry is generally sustainable). Like regular logging, illegal logging is concentrated on forests with good infrastructure in the European part of Russia, such as B. in Karelia . There, even in the 1990s, when the amount of felling fell sharply across the country due to the economic collapse, the legal usage amount already corresponded to 90% of the annual fell rate . According to state information, the percentage of the annual cut rate realized does not exceed 60% in any of the subjects of the Russian Federation (these are the "federal states" of the Federation), usually from 20 to 40% in the European part, and from 0 to 20% in the Asian part.

Estimates of the volume of illegal timber exports were also made by the WWF. In total, Russia exports around 40 million m 3 of round wood to other countries every year. The proportion of illegal wood varies between 10 and 35%. With regard to exports to the EU-15, the WWF estimates 20%. A total of around 16.5 million m 3 are exported to the EU-27, 11.2 million of them to Finland alone.

With regard to the export of Russian wood to the PRC, increased harvesting measures are recorded in Siberia and in the Far East of the country. Resident forest companies sell almost all of their goods to China. Today, with around 15.3 million m 3, the country is the largest importer of Russian wood. In a publication published jointly with the World Bank, the WWF states that 15 to 70% of the timber traded is illegally felled or has to be associated with other forms of criminal activity, in particular corruption, tax evasion and the avoidance of customs duties.

In connection with the reform of the forest administration through the entry into force of the new Federal Forest Act, due to the difficult process of transferring sovereign rights in the forest from the central government to the subjects of the Russian Federation, an increase in illegal activities in the forest sector is expected.

Western and Central Europe

Illegal logging plays a very subordinate role in the rich industrialized countries of Europe today - also due to limited forests. However, it does take place. The theft of Christmas trees and firewood in the catchment area of ​​barbecue areas in the forest are known. However, with rising wood prices and the increased use of wood as an energy source in private households, illegal activities are becoming more important again (improvement of living conditions through additional income or savings on heating costs ). Private forests are also affected, the mostly urban owners of which are unable to take notice due to the absence of wood thefts.

However, in earlier centuries wood theft was a widespread crime in German-speaking countries, which was often referred to as " forest crime ". The problem arose in modern times with the shortage of wood in the 17th century, when the first forest regulations were issued to counteract the unauthorized removal of wood from the forests. The implementation of these laws gave rise to conflicts, especially because the forest and its use were previously considered to be everyone's right . The problem emerged particularly harshly at the end of the 18th century. The great shortage of wood caused mainly small wood thefts for the purpose of firewood. The rigid enforcement of the forest laws led to conflicts that culminated in the violent death of a forester in many places. Karl Marx addressed the problem in thesis papers. Further references to the theft of wood in earlier times can be found in the poetry, for example in the story " Peterchens Mondfahrt ".

Measures against illegal logging

A variety of strategies have been developed to counter illegal logging.

The world's first international initiative for this is the G8 forest action plan, which the participants decided on at the 1997 Denver summit. The World Bank's Forest Governance Program and FLEG programs also exist at the global level. FLEG stands for Forest Law Enforcement and Governance , i.e. law enforcement in the forest sector and policy making .

Further measures are discussed and decided at European and pan-European level (initiatives within the framework of the MCPFE , North Eurasian FLEG initiative of the Russian Federation, EU FLEGT action plan). In addition, there are approaches to incorporate civil society processes such as the certification of sustainable forestry and to consistently align public procurement policy with the purchase of legal wood. Attempts are still being made to make existing legally binding international agreements (such as the Washington Convention on Endangered Species ) more effective. There are national special initiatives and bilateral agreements. Other measures to curb illegal logging include public procurement and other private forest sector initiatives.

Washington Convention on Species Conservation (CITES)

One of the few legally binding instruments available worldwide to prevent the import or export of illegal timber into or out of a country is the Washington Convention on the Protection of Species (CITES). This was signed by 166 states in 1973 and has been ratified by 160 states to date. In the 3 appendices to this document, some tree species are listed that are threatened or endangered with extinction. Trading in these is prohibited, requires special permits or is restricted by special national regulations. These types are in detail:

FLEG programs

These programs were initiated by the World Bank for certain regions in order to improve political structures and to strengthen intersectoral cooperation in the fight against illegal logging. The first regional program is the Southeast Asia FLEG from 2001. Two years later, the Africa FLEG was launched. Russia initiated the ENA-FLEG 2005 in 2005, and the European Union is cooperating with the World Bank in a corresponding initiative for Latin America.

EU action plan FLEGT

The action plan describes a number of measures to combat illegal logging. It was largely inspired by the Rio + 10 conference in Johannesburg in 2002 and is based on the principles of the East Asia FLEG. The measures in the FLEGT plan span several areas, including improving policy making. This includes building capacity in the partner countries, particularly in setting up systems to check the legality of logging and enforce applicable law, as well as promoting political reforms.

Furthermore, voluntary partnership agreements are being made to identify illegal timber when it is imported into the customs area of ​​the Union. There are currently no mechanisms in place that would allow customs authorities to identify illegal timber and thus prevent it from entering the EU. A regulation of the EU Council enables a voluntary approval system in which the partner countries certify the legality of the origin of the wood exported to the EU.

Another objective is to reduce the consumption of illegal wood and to prevent investments that encourage illegal logging. This includes the development of practical information for public clients to take legality aspects into account in wood procurement, as well as the promotion of private-sector initiatives (including the use of voluntary codes of conduct) and information policy with regard to lenders such as banks, the aspects of legal wood production when granting loans and export guarantees for forestry projects. Existing legal instruments such as the Washington Convention on Endangered Species and criminal law are to be reviewed and modified if necessary. In this context, the WWF calls for illegal timber trade to be included in the Money Laundering Act as a punishable offense. In the area of ​​trade in conflict timber, the efforts of the UN to reduce conflict financing through the export of natural resources such as wood are to be supported.

Initiative of the US President George W. Bush

This 2003 strategy targets three hot spots, namely the Congo Basin, Latin America and Southeast Asia. It formulates four key elements:

At the same time, the US is formulated to take a leadership role in the fight against illegal logging in terms of developing alternative courses of action.

Other initiatives

There are also bilateral agreements between individual nation states. In Germany there were efforts to enact a primeval forest protection law, which would have made the import of illegally felled wood a punishable offense. The United Kingdom launched a program in 2002 to introduce reforms through national, regional and international organizations to strengthen governance structures in West and Central Africa. The Asia Forest Partnership and the Congo Basin Forest Partnership program are regional initiatives for Asia and the Congo Basin, both of which were launched as part of the Rio + 10 Summit in Johannesburg in 2002. Its aim is to strengthen cooperation between affected countries in various areas, many of which are exposed to illegal activities. Governments and non-governmental interest groups as well as international organizations are involved.

See also

literature

  • National Action Plans to Combat Illegal Logging and other Forest Crimes. World Bank Technical Paper. Washington 2007.
  • UNECE / FAO workshop on illegal logging. State country reports available online on the extent of illegal logging in many European countries (online) .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Combatting Illegal Harvesting and Related Trade of Forest Products in Europe. Report for the MCPFE Workshop held in Madrid, Spain November 3-4, 2005. Warsaw 2007, ISBN 978-83-922396-5-9 , p. 13.
  2. ↑ WWF / World bank Alliance: The impact of large-scale forest industry investments on World Bank / WWF Alliance targets, and recommendations for investments safeguards. Final report. Gland, Switzerland / Washington DC, 2003. illegal-logging.info ( Memento of the original from February 1, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF file; 485 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.illegal-logging.info
  3. ^ W. Smith: The Global Problem of Illegal Logging. ITTO Tropical Forest. 2002. itto.or.jp ( Memento of the original from December 16, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.itto.or.jp
  4. ^ Combatting Illegal Harvesting and Related Trade of Forest Products in Europe. Report for the MCPFE Workshop held in Madrid, Spain November 3-4, 2005. Warsaw 2007, ISBN 978-83-922396-5-9 , p. 14.
  5. ↑ Miller, Taylor, White: Keep it legal. Best Practices for Keeping Illegaly Harvested Timber out of Your Supply Chain. WWF Global Forest and Trade Network, 2006, p. 13f.
  6. ↑ FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 .
  7. ↑ Senca Creek Associates and Wood Resources International: Illegal logging and global wood markets: the competitive impacts on the US wood products industry. Report for the American Forest and paper Association. Poolesville, WRI 2004, quoted in FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 , p. 13.
  8. ↑ FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 , p. 6.
  9. ↑ FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 , p. 7f.
  10. ↑ T. Durst, T. Waggener, T. Enters, L. Cheng (Eds.): Forests out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness of logging bansin natural forests in Asia-Pacific. Bangkok, FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission 2001, ISBN 974-7946-10-6 . Available online Available online .
  11. ↑ a b FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 , p. 7.
  12. ^ Wells et al .: Rural livelihoods, forest law and the illegal timber trade in Honduras and Nicaragua. CIFOR / PROFOR 2004.
  13. ↑ Liberia's hasty forest sell-off risks more conflict. theguardian.com
  14. ↑ Wil de Long, Steven Price, Deanna Donovan: Extreme Conflict and Tropical Forests. In: World Forests. vol. 7, Springer, Dordrecht 2007 ISSN  1566-0427
  15. ↑ Guidelines. Formulation and Implementation of National Action Plans to Combat Illegal Logging and Other Forest Crimes. World Bank Technical Paper. Washington DC, 2006, ISBN 83-88911-07-4 , pp. 9f.
  16. ↑ Guidelines. Formulation and Implementation of National Action Plans to Combat Illegal Logging and Other Forest Crimes. World Bank Technical Paper. Washington DC, 2006, ISBN 83-88911-07-4 , ISBN 83-922396-5-2 , pp. 10f.
  17. ↑ Guidelines. Formulation and Implementation of National Action Plans to Combat Illegal Logging and Other Forest Crimes. World Bank Technical Paper. Washington DC, 2006, ISBN 83-88911-07-4 , pp. 11f.
  18. ↑ Guidelines. Formulation and Implementation of National Action Plans to Combat Illegal Logging and Other Forest Crimes. World Bank Technical Paper. Washington DC, 2006, ISBN 83-88911-07-4 , p. 11.
  19. ^ Combatting Illegal Harvesting and Related Trade in Forest Products in Europe. Report for the MCPFE Workshop Held in Madrid, Spain, November 3-4, 2005, MCPFE-LU Warsaw. Warsaw, 2005, ISBN 83-922396-5-2 , p. 31ff.
  20. ^ Combatting Illegal Harvesting and Related Trade in Forest Products in Europe. Report for the MCPFE Workshop Held in Madrid, Spain, November 3-4, 2005, MCPFE-LU Warsaw. Warsaw, 2005, ISBN 83-922396-5-2 , p. 27.
  21. ^ Combatting Illegal Harvesting and Related Trade in Forest Products in Europe. Report for the MCPFE Workshop Held in Madrid, Spain, November 3-4, 2005, MCPFE-LU Warsaw. Warsaw, 2005, ISBN 83-922396-5-2 , p. 43.
  22. ↑ Study by WWF, March 2005, p. 27f. assets.panda.org
  23. ↑ Illegal Logging In Romania. WWF Danube Carpathian Programs. WWF, May 2005, p. 16f. assets.panda.org
  24. ^ Combatting Illegal Harvesting and Related Trade in Forest Products in Europe. Report for the MCPFE Workshop Held in Madrid, Spain, November 3-4, 2005, MCPFE-LU Warsaw. Warsaw, 2005, ISBN 83-922396-5-2 , pp. 43f.
  25. ↑ Country report on the UNECE / FAO workshop 2003, p. 7. unece.org
  26. ↑ China exports deforestation around the globe diepresse.com
  27. ↑ China at the center of 'illegal timber' trade. theguardian.com
  28. ↑ The Last Stand of the Orangutan ( Memento of June 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) UNEP, UNESCO, p. 36, accessed on January 10, 2008. Warning, large amounts of data!
  29. ↑ L. Tacconi, K. Obidzinski, F. Agung: Learning Lessons to Promote Certification and Control Illegal Logging in Indonesia. Report for the WWF / TNC World Alliance. CIFOR, 2004.
  30. ^ Seneca Creek Association, Wood Resources International: Illegal Logging and Global Wood Markets: The Competitive Impacts on the US Wood Products Industry . Prepared by the American Forest and Paper Association, 2004.
  31. ↑ Michael THORMAEHLEN: EU recognizes Indonesian controls against illegal logging. August 18, 2016, accessed May 17, 2019 .
  32. ^ B. Bolshakov: National Report of the Russian Federation on Illegal Logging and Trade of Illegally Derived Forest Products. Joint UNECE / FAO workshop on illegal logging. Geneva, 16-17. September 2005.
  33. ^ Morosow, A .: Survey of illegal Forest Felling Activities in Russia. Greenpeace, 2000. forest.ru ( Memento of the original from April 15, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.forest.ru
  34. ↑ Lopina, Ptitschnikow, Woropajew: Illegal Logging in North Western Russia and Export of Russian Forest Products to Sweden. WWF, 2003. //de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Defekte_Weblinks&dwl= http://www.wwf.de/fileadmin/fm-wwf/pdf-alt/waelder/russlandstudie2.pdf page no longer available ] , search in web archives: [ http://timetravel.mementoweb.org/list/2010/http://www.wwf.de/fileadmin/fm-wwf/pdf-alt/waelder/russlandstudie2.pdf@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.wwf.de
  35. ↑ Bruchanow et al., 2003. wwf.dk ( Memento of the original dated June 3, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.wwf.dk
  36. ↑ a b Russian Forests 2005. Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, Federal Forest Agency. Forest Industry Publishing House, 2005, ISBN 5-94737-014-X , p. 13.
  37. ↑ Russian Forests 2005. Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, Federal Forest Agency. Forest Industry Publishing House, 2005, ISBN 5-94737-014-X , p. 14.
  38. ↑ Strachow et al. Myllynen: On the Ecological and Economic of Wood Harvesting and Trade in North-West Russia. Joint study by Oy FEG, ARICFR (Joensuu University), University of St. Petersburg, Russian Academy of Sciences and St. Petersburg Research Center for Biosafety. Joensuu, 1996, p. 24.
  39. ↑ Estimation of the WWF by Toyne et al: The Timber Footprint of the G8 and China. WWF, 2002. panda.org
  40. ↑ Sistemy Otsleschiwanija Proischoschdenija Drewesiny kak Sredstwo Predotwrtschenija Nelegalnych Lesosagotowok. Materialy seminars. Isdadesltvo Alex, Moscow, 2007, ISBN 978-5-9618003-9-5 , p. 81.
  41. ↑ Sistemy Otsleschiwanija Proischoschdenija Drewesiny kak Sredstwo Predotwrtschenija Nelegalnych Lesosagotowok. Materialy seminars. Isdadesltvo Alex, Moscow, 2007, ISBN 978-5-9618003-9-5 , p. 119.
  42. ^ Sources and reading material Dresdner Heidedörfer: Use of the forest. ( Memento of the original from May 28, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 7, 2008. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / amuellner.gmxhome.de
  43. ^ Johann Dachs: Death in the forest. True stories of poaching and ranger killing. Suedost-Verlag, 1998, ISBN 3-89682-018-4 .
  44. ^ Karl Marx: Debates on the wood theft law. Retrieved April 7, 2008.
  45. ↑ cites.org Annex 1-3 of CITES at www.cites.org
  46. ↑ FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 , p. 69.
  47. ↑ FLEGT Bulletin No. 1 of the European Union. ec.europa.eu  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / ec.europa.eu  
  48. ↑ WWF website, accessed on January 11, 2008. wwf.de ( Memento of the original from May 10, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.wwf.de
  49. ↑ bill UrwSchG
  50. ↑ FAO and ITTO: Best practices for improving law compliance in the forest sector. (= FAO Forestry Paper. No. 145). FAO, Rome 2005, ISBN 92-5-105381-2 , p. 70.
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