Passive in the Spanish language

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The passive or suffering form , voz pasiva , is one of the diatheses . The diathesis ( direction of action), diátesis gramatical is a category of the verb (also referred to as verb gender or gender verbi). Diathesis is a special case of valence alternation .

Explanation

In a valence alternation, two stem-related verbs have different semantic and / or syntactic players (or participants ), while the basic verbal meaning remains the same.

Syntactic function and semantic role in the passive voice

One of the functions of the various forms of diathesis is that a particular event can be expressed in different grammatical ways, so that the actors involved in the interaction are presented from different perspectives. The subject is always in the nominative . 

 Juan la besó. Juan sie küsste. Pretérito indefinido de indicativo, voz activa
 Juan besó a María. Juan küsste María. Pretérito indefinido, voz activa
 María fue besada por Juan. María wurde geküsst von Juan. Presente de indicativo, Vorgangspassiv, voz pasiva con ser

This makes it clear that a fundamental distinction must be made between syntactic functions and semantic roles (see Charles J. Fillmore (1968)).

With a change of diathesis, the number of semantic roles realized in the sentence and their distribution over the syntactic positions in the new sentence changes. Some semantic roles are:

  • Agent , agente : person or thing that performs an action:

Juan kisses María. Juan leyó el libro.

  • Patiens , paciente : person or thing affected by an action:

María is kissed. La roca aplastó el tractor.

  • Cause , causa : person or object that causes an event:

Love made Juan María kiss her. Juan se comió la tarta porque llevaba sin comer desde ayer.

  • Beneficient / Benefaktiv , beneficiario : beneficiary or injured party of an act:

The mother got the apples from Carlos. El ingeniero construyó un coche para la clase media.

  • Experiencer experimentador,: person who has a perception in the event:

Carlos was afraid of María and Juan. Me puse a llorar.

  • Source fuente u origen : Starting point of a directed movement:

The Santa María sailed from Valencia to Mallorca. Ella se apartó de él.

  • Goal , finalidad o propósito : Goal of a directed movement:

The Santa María sailed from Valencia to Mallorca. Carlos se comió la tarta para ganar the concurso de comilones.

  • Path dirección o meta : Path between a source and a goal:

The Santa Maria sailed from Valencia via Gibraltar to Madeira. La caravana continuó hacia el oasis lejano.

The indirect object (in the case terminology dative ) often marks the actual end point of the action. It is the object that “feels” the consequences of an action. By inserting the unstressed, connected personal pronoun , pronombre personal átono , the relationships become clearer. - Examples: 

 Carlos llevó manzanas a su madre Carlos brachte Äpfel zu seiner Mutter. bzw. Carlos brachte seiner Mutter Äpfel.
 Le llevó manzanas Ihr er brachte Äpfel. bzw. Er brachte ihr Äpfel.

The “mother” is the one who in this case “gets to feel” the consequences of the action of “Carlos” because she receives the “apples”. So the mother is the indirect object. “Carlos” takes on the semantic role of the agent, the “apples” the role of the patient. A conversion into the passive voice makes the indirect object stand out: 

 Las manzanas fueron llevadas por Carlos a su madre Die Äpfel wurden gebracht durch Carlos zu seiner Mutter.

With the direction of action or diathesis, the relationship between the content of the verb and the subject of the sentence is made known. There are only two possibilities for the polarity active-passive, either the statement of the verb relates to the subject itself or not. In the case of an action that is verbalized with a transitive verb , it is important whether the transitive verb relates to the object or to the subject. Transitive verbs are related to a direct object (the accusative object in case terminology ); the direct object is what the action promised by the verb is aimed at. Transitive verbs are synonymous as "aiming action words". A transitive action therefore presupposes an object per se , so the object-relatedness remains unmarked, but the subject-relatedness would be marked.

The active Spanish phrase, oraciíon activa : Atila destruyó la ciudad. Attila destroyed the city broken down. ( Voz activa )
The passive Spanish sentence, oraciíon pasiva : La ciudad fue destruida (por Atila) The city was destroyed by Attila. broken down ( Voz pasiva )

Most transitive verbs that can be accompanied by a direct object can form a passive form. To put the direct object in the foreground of the sentence, move it to the beginning of the sentence and double the direct object with an accusative pronoun . Its basic semantic function is similar to the German passive voice. The Spanish passive voice describes or emphasizes a verbal event that is turned away from the agent . This makes it event-oriented, and this is where it differs from active. - Examples: 

 Atila destruyó la ciudad. Pretérito indefinido de indicativo, Voz activa Attila zerstörte die Stadt.
 La ciudad fue destruida por Atila. Pretérito indefinido de indicativo, Vorgangspassiv, pasiva con ser o pasiva de proceso Die Stadt wurde zerstört von Attila.
 La mujer lee un ensayo. Presente de indicativo, Voz activa Die Frau liest ein Essay.
 El ensayo es leído por la mujer. Presente de indicativo, Voz pasiva Das Essay wurde gelesen von der Frau.
 Juana compró el coche. Pretérito indefinido de indicativo, Voz activa Juana schon kaufte das Auto.
 El coche fue comprado por Juana. Pretérito indefinido de indicativo, Voz pasiva Das Auto war schon gekauft worden von Juana.

Just as for the active (form of activity), voz activa , the passive can in principle also be set in all tenses , tiempos gramaticales . The same applies to the three different modes of a verb, the indicativo, the subjuntivo and the imperativo in the different tenses. However, one has to take into account that on the one hand, and unlike the German language, the procedural passive in Spanish has a more specific application; for example in the administrative language or in the print media . Everyday, spoken communication prefers active sentences or the reflexive passive , pasiva refleja and, on the other hand, that certain tenses and modes have no meaning, especially in the passive state and would be perceived as a stylistic error in spoken Spanish .

Active, voz activa emphasizes who or what is performing the action or event. In the passive voice, voz pasiva , the act itself is accentuated, the who or what disappears. The subject of the sentence does not act, but experiences the effects of such.

There was a lot of discussion about whether in Spanish, unlike in German, a passive voice even exists, since in individual cases (e.g. with certain tenses) it has no special everyday forms, but rather through paraphrase and analytical, i.e. H. composed, is formed. The analysis of the most varied of text corpora shows that the voz pasiva is increasingly in the written language and is quite often in use there. - Examples: 

 Vosotros habéis sido radiados. Ihr seid bestrahlt worden. Vorgangspassiv

This is a grammatically correct form, which, however, is rather unusual in everyday language use and is therefore exchanged in favor of other constructions. 

 Os han radiados. Euch sie haben bestrahlt.
 Se os radió. Man euch hat schon bestrahlt.

Although some passive sentences are not used in everyday language or some only in written language , this does not mean that passive constructions, voces pasivas, are not used. Certain facts can not always be presented elegantly in an active construction, voz activa . If, for example, the person responsible for a situation to be promised is not known or if two objects, a direct object and an indirect object with an appended "a" , are used, the passive construction is often the more eloquent form. - Examples: 

 Los vecinos no entregarán a conductor a la policía (voz activa).
 El conductor no será entregado a la policía por los vecinos (voz pasiva genauer pasiva con ser).
 El artesano abre la puerta (voz activa). La puerta es abierta por el artesano (voz pasiva genauer pasiva con ser).

General, linguistic history

Active and passive are the two genera verbi in the recent and genetically related Indo-European languages or language families . The passive voice was not part of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). In the Indo-European languages, the passive is a later development, because in the proto-language there was only the medium alongside the active . According to Karl Brugmann (1917), separating the passive from the other two diatheses, active and medium, was only possible after the differentiation between nominative and accusative had begun. The verb in the active state has the task of highlighting the subject as an agent and thus expressing that it is performing an action. The verb in the passive state, on the other hand, transforms the subject into a patient . Here the subject as patient is placed in another case by the nominative.

The passive voice developed only secondary. Two hypotheses are in the foreground:

  • One is of the opinion that the passive voice goes back to a “reflexive medium” which expresses that the subject is performing an action;
  • The other hypothesis explains the passive originating from the "eventive medium", which expresses that the subject is affected by a state or process.

The medium for its part corresponds in its meaning to the reflexive verbs , e.g. B. "hurry up", "remember", "get lost". It is also used to express an intention in the interests of the subject : to earn something for oneself. Also the action or change of an event happens to the subject of the sentence: 

 Der Baum fällt.

When verbs are used reflexively, the subject becomes the object of an action: 

 Ich wasche mich.

The function of the passive was quite similar to that of the reflexive in today's Romance , but also Slavic or Germanic languages.

Forms of Spanish passive education

Traditionally, there are two types of passive education in Spanish:

  • the analytic passive voice, pasiva analítica ; and
  • the synthetic passive voice , pasiva sintética .

The copula verbs estar and ser for the formation of the analytic passive

The two copula verbs "estar / ser" can be viewed as auxiliary verbs, as they form a semantically empty category that primarily has a functional, but not a lexical meaning. In the Spanish language, generally speaking, the differentiation between the representation as "happening" or representation as "state" is much more developed than in the German language. In Spanish, the choice of copula verbs “estar vs. ser “also strongly depends on the speaker's perspective ( pragmatics ).

In addition to the two copula verbs "estar" and "ser", there are also a number of other verbs in Spanish which, in addition to their function as full verbs, can also be used as copula verbs. In this function, they then lose their lexical value and only mean an existence. Due to their ability to express state of affairs even as full verbs, they are particularly suitable as copular replacements ( verbos pseudocopulativos ). Some of these copula substitutes can also form passive constructions. - Examples:

  • tener + participio pasado o perfecto o pasivo ,
  • llevar + participio or
  • traer + participio.

Analytical passive

The analytic passive ( pasiva analítica ) is formed with the conjugated auxiliary verb ser or estar (German “sein” or “werden or werden sein”) and the participio pasado or perfecto or pasivo of the corresponding verb. It is not absolutely necessary to name the author of the action, but if he appears, then in connection with the preposition “por” or, more rarely, with “de” . - Examples: 

 Pedro comió las peras. Pedro aß die Birnen (Aktiv); oder
 Las peras fueron comidas por Pedro. Die Birnen wurden von Pedro gegessen (Passiv genauer pasiva con ser).

The analytical passive, pasiva de analítica , is in turn divided into process passive and state passive .

  • The process passive, pasiva con ser , is used to express processes, processes and process-related events.
  • The state passive, pasiva con estar , is needed to express the result of an action, fact or state.

While the process passive ( pasiva con ser ) describes an action or a fact that starts from a person or object described, the state passive ( pasiva con estar ) promises the result of an action. The process passive is formed with the copula verb ser and the participio pasado of the corresponding verb. If the process passive is combined with a modal verb, such as ir a and acabar de , the copula verb ser is used in the infinitive ( infinitivo ). The state passive is formed with the copula verb estar and the participio pasado of the corresponding verb. In terms of formal formation, it is similar to the German forms , which are formed with the auxiliary verb sein and will : Ser corresponds to the German “sein” and estar to the German “werden” or “sein werden”.

In both cases, the participle ( participio ) is based on the subject ( congruence ) in gender and number , in other words, the participle used must match the subject in gender and number. - Examples: 

 La ciudad fue destruida por Attila. Die Stadt wurde zerstört von Attila.
 El coche ya había sido comprado por Juana. Der Wagen war von Juana schon gekauft worden.

The process passive, pasiva con ser o pasiva de proceso

Subject + ser + participle participio pasado or perfecto congruent according to the subject in gender and number + por + subject of the active sentence.

Only the copula verb “ser” can form a process passive, the constructions formed with “estar” and the participle ( participio pasado o perfecto ) are not process passive, here the participio pasado o perfecto behaves like an adjective. There are no agentive prepositional phrases; "Agentive verbs" or "actional verbs" are verbs of movement and belong to the "action verbs". 

La casa fue arruinada por el enigmo. Indefinido, Vorgangspassiv
La casa estaba arruinada. (* por el enigmo) Imperfecto, Zustandspassiv

In the case of a perfect state, it is indicated that the fact or the act that took place over a certain period of time has a known beginning and end. An imperfect state lacks this aspect. Adjectives that are combined with “ser” represent imperfective states, those that are combined with “estar” represent perfective states. The process passive with "ser" can reflect courses of action. The state passive with "estar" promises the result of an action.

In the case of process passive or action passive, the central question is: "What was initiated by whom or by what?" Thus the subject of the active ( voz activa ) is not in the foreground, but rather the conditions that trigger or can bring about an action. The subject of the voz activa , on the other hand, is in the background and at the end of the sentence after a corresponding preposition, e.g. por . The process passive ( pasiva con ser o pasiva de proceso ), as the name suggests, describes passive processes in actions and events. In the case of process passive, what is happening is in the field of view, it depicts something processual, a process, the direct object of the active sentence moves up to the passive subject. The actor of the active sentence disappears from the verbal scene and is not mentioned or added with the preposition por , more rarely de . - Examples: 

 Juana invita a María. Juana lädt María ein. Presente de indicativo, Voz activa
 María es invitada por Juana. María ist von Juana eingeladen. Presente de indicativo, Voz pasiva con ser

 Las contraventanas fueron cerradas. Die Fensterläden wurden geschlossen. Pretérito indefinido de indicativo, Voz pasiva con ser

The process passive uses the auxiliary verb or copula verb ser and a changeable participle participio pasado or perfecto . - example: 

 Las camas no han sido hechas. Die Betten sind nicht gemacht worden. Pretérito perfecto de indicativo, Voz pasiva con ser
 Los científicos nucleares habían sido radiados. Die Atomforscher waren bestrahlt worden. Pretérito perfecto de indicativo, Voz pasiva con ser

With regard to the semantic role of the process passive, the change in the verb morphology consists in the fact that the argument with the agent role is realized as ser + participle participio pasado , while the argument with the patient role appears as a noun phrase in the nominative.

The state passive ( pasiva con estar o pasiva de estado ), on the other hand, describes states in which the subjects of an action or an event have experienced, “suffered” something, whereby this action is now completed. So the focus is not on the event, but on the result, the result of the actions. In German, this form is formed with the auxiliary verb “werden” or “sein werden”. 

  Todas las casas están vendidas. Alle Häuser sind verkauft. Presente de indicativo, voz pasiva con estar
  Todos los libros están vendidos. Alle Bücher sind verkauft. Presente de indicativo, voz pasiva con estar

 Las contraventanas están cerradas. Die Fensterläden sind geschlossen. Presente de indicativo, voz pasiva con estar
Process passive (selection), indicativo ser
person Presente Imperfecto Indefinido Perfecto Pluscuamperfecto Futuro Participio pasado or perfecto
yo soy (I'm being irradiated) era (I was irradiated) fui (I've already been irradiated) he sido (i have been irradiated) había sido (I was irradiated) seré (I will be irradiated) radiado
tú eres eras fuiste has sido habís sido serás radiado
él, ella it era fue ha sido habías sido será radiado
nosotros, nosotras somos éramos fuimos hemos sido habíamos sido seremos radiado
vosotros, vosotras sois erais fuisteis habais sido habíais sido seréis radiado
ellos, ellas son eran foron han sido habían sido serán radiado

Process passive (selection) subjuntivo ser
person Presente Imperfecto Perfecto Pluscuamperfecto Futuro Participio pasado or perfecto
yo sea (I'm being irradiated) füra (I would be irradiated) haya sido (I was irradiated) hubiera sido (I would have been irradiated) hubiere sido (i will be irradiated) radiado
tú seas foras hayas sido hubieras sido hubieres sido radiado
él, ella sea for a haya sido hubiera sido hubiere sido radiado
nosotros, nosotras seamos fuéramos hayamos sido hubiéramos sido hubiéremos sido radiado
vosotros, vosotras seáis fürais hayáis sido habierais sido hubiereis sido radiado
ellos, ellas sean foran hayan sido have sido hub sido radiado

The state passive, pasiva con estar

Subject + estar + participle participio pasado or perfecto congruent according to the subject in gender and number

The state passive describes the result of an action or an event and describes states. It describes a state of affairs that starts with a person or an object and is linked to a result. The central question is: "What is the state of a person or an object after an action or event has happened or is completed?" The state passive ( pasiva con estar ) uses the auxiliary verb or copula verb estar and a changeable participle, participio pasado or perfecto . - Examples:

Las camas ya están hechas. The beds are already made . Presente de indicativo, Voz pasiva con estar Los pacientes han estado radiados . The patients received radiation. Pretérito perfecto de indicativo, voz pasiva con estar.

State passive (selection) indicativo estar
person Presente Imperfecto Indefinido Perfecto Pluscuamperfecto Futuro Participio pasado or perfecto
yo estoy (i'm irradiated) estaba (I was irradiated) estuve (I was already irradiated) he estado (I was irradiated) había estado (I was irradiated) estaré (I'll be irradiated) radiado
tú estás estabas estuviste has estado habías estado estarás radiado
él, ella está estaba estuvo ha estado había estado estará radiado
nosotros, nosotras estamos estábamos estuvimos hemos estado habíamos estado estaremos radiado
vosotros, vosotras estáis estabais estuvisteis habais estado habíais estado estaréis radiado
ellos, ellas están estaban estuvieron han estado habían estado estarán radiado

State passive (selection) subjuntivo estar
person Presente Imperfecto Perfecto Pluscuamperfecto Futuro Participio pasado or perfecto
yo esté (I am irradiated) estuviera (I would be irradiated) haya estado (I was irradiated) hubiera estado (I would have been irradiated) hubiere estado (I would be irradiated) radiado
tú estés estuvieras hayas estado hubieras estado hubieres estado radiado
él, ella esté estuviera haya estado hubiera estado hubiere estado radiado
nosotros, nosotras estemos estuviéramos hayamos estado hubiéramos estado hubiéremos estado radiado
vosotros, vosotras estéis estestuvierais hayáis estado habierais estado hubiereis estado radiado
ellos, ellas estén estuvieran hayan estado have estado hub estado radiado

Synthetic passive voice , pasiva sintética

In everyday spoken language, one avoids the analytical passive voice in favor of the synthetic passive voice ( pasiva sintética ) and the pasiva refleja . A prerequisite for such a construction would be that the subject of the sentence is not a person (factual subjects), more precisely: If it is animate, it must be indefinite in number, i.e. without an article . Otherwise it is inanimate. Basically, it is a reflexive active form, similar to the German phrase Das Auto drives well. 

 En algunas familias de la Bosnia no se come la carne de cerdo. In einigen bosnischen Familien isst man kein Schweinefleisch.

This passive Spanish construction is usually made up of the pronoun se and the third person singular or plural of a transitive verb and a noun. So there is always a subject. With a few exceptions, the verb must be transitive (transitive here means that it can bind a direct object).

It is formed with the pronoun se and a verb in the third person; the author is not named (in German often referred to as “man”). - Examples: 

 Se vende el piso Man verkauft die Wohnung
 El piso es vendido por alguien Die Wohnung wird von jemandem verkauft.

The reflexive passive ( pasiva refleja ) uses the personal pronoun se and the third person singular or plural of the verb. - example: 

 Este coche se vende bien Dieses Auto verkauft sich gut.

With regard to the semantic role , reflexive constructions are those in which the agent and the patient have the same reference.

The synthetic passive voice is the more commonly used form.

Another form of “passive” construction is used when the cause or the cause of an action or event is unknown or insignificant; it is the active form of an indefinite subject.

Active with the indefinite subject ( pasiva impersonal ): Instead of a real passive construction, the active stands with an indefinite subject. - example: 

 Allí están ensanchando el edificio Dort wird das Gebäude erweitert.

The “hay” in German “there is”, which was developed from the original full verb “haber”, can also be used for passive sentence structure. The main verb "haber" is used in Spanish almost exclusively as an auxiliary verb for the formation of the compound tenses. It represents a formulation alternative to the actually passive grammatical-syntactic sentence construction. The Spanish modal verb “hay que” in German “one must” is used in conjunction with an infinitive as an alternative to the passive. - example: 

 hay + que + infinitive Verbform
 Hay que hacer ejercicio y dormir bien. Man muss gut trainieren und schlafen.

The reflexive passive in Spanish, pasiva refleja, voz mediopasiva

The reflexive passive ( pasiva refleja ) is a very common expression in everyday Spanish and is used to verbalize a process passive through an active expression in a reflexive form. It is expressed with the reflexive pronoun "se". Actually this reflexive-passive form represents a mediopassive ( voz mediopasiva ), which is usually indicated by the use of a reflexive pronoun. - example: 

El padre se enojó al ver a su hijo romper la lámpara.

The verb "se enojó" expresses the mediopassive because on the one hand it includes the reflexive pronoun "se" and on the other hand, in conjunction with the simple verb "enojar", it means "to be angry".

Through the use of the pronoun, a passive process can be expressed in the 3rd person (singular or plural) if the suffering subject has the property of an inanimate or animate but indefinite subject in transitive verbs, i.e. H. without article. 

In der Satzstellung steht das erleidende Subjekt meistens hinter dem (transitiven) Verb:

"Se + verb + subject", but you can also find the sequence "subject + se + verb" - examples: 

 Los coches son vendidos. Die Autos werden verkauft.
 Se venden los coches. Auch Los coches se venden. Sich verkaufen die Autos.
 Esta casa es vendida. Dieses Haus wird verkauft.
 Se vende esta casa. Auch Esta casa se vende. Sich verkauft dieses Haus.

In German there is a very similar construction, but then combined with an adverb . 

 Diese Autos verkaufen sich gut.
 Wikipedia liest sich leichter als Lexika.

The reflexive passive takes certain prerequisites as the reason for its construction. So there must always be a subject , and the verb must be transitive . Transitive here means that the verb is able to bind a direct object . - example: 

 Aquí se come pollo. Hier wird Hähnchen gegessen.

But if the subject is missing, there is no pasiva refleja . - example: 

 Aquí se come bien. Hier isst man gut.

The suffering subject represents an inanimate object that, strictly speaking, cannot carry out the process in a self-induced manner. - example: 

 Los coches se venden. Die Autos werden verkauft.

On the other hand, the form with an animated subject would not be a pasiva refleja . - example: 

 Las mujeres se venden por unos euros. Die Frauen verkaufen sich für ein paar Euros.
Active phrase , Oración activa Analytical passive voice , oración pasiva analítica Synthetic passive voice , oración pasiva sintética o refleja
El presidente (suj. Agente) convocó la reunión (c. Directo) La reunión (suj. Paciente) fue convocada por el presidente (comp. Agente) Se convocó la reunión (suj. Paciente) [ por x ] (comp. Agente)

literature

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ Abbreviations, Abreviatura * SN nominal phrase, sintagma nominal , * SD determinant phrase , sintagma determinante , * SV verb phrase, sintagma verbal , * N head, núcleo sintáctico , nombre, adjetivo o pronombre, * V verb, verbo , * P preposition, preposición , * C Komplement, complemento sintáctico (complemento), * CD complemento directo * CI complemento indirecto * CP construcción preposicional * D determinative, determinante
  2. ↑ on copula verbs, see also Proto-Indo-European copula , verbo copulativo protoindoeuropeo
  3. ↑ learning aid "feed st -andspassiv, pasiva con e st -ar "
  4. ↑ In German also " werden-Passiv " ; so passive present tense : become + past participle ; Passive simple past : were + past participle; Passive perfect : to be + participle II + become; Passive past perfect : were + past participle + became; Passive future tense I : will + participle II + become; Passive future tense II : will have become + participle II +;
  5. ↑ In German also " sein-passive " ; so be + past participle with the present tense ; Past tense ; Future tense I.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Charles J. Fillmore (1968) called them " deep case " based on the classical grammar , and later case roles . However, they are fundamentally different from the grammatical cases, caso gramatical , so that the concept of semantic roles later became established more consistently in terms of sentences . A semantic role, rol semántico, is basically not tied to a specific grammatical case, nor are they lexical properties of words. Rather, the semantic roles in the sentence content are only constituted when they have been combined with a certain predicate within a statement frame.
  2. ↑ Peter von Polenz: German sentence semantics. 3rd edition, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-020366-0 , p. 169
  3. ^ Charles J. Fillmore: The Case for Case. In E. Bach, R. Harms (Ed.): Universals in Linguistic Theory. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York 1968, pp. 1-88.
  4. ↑ Christa Dürscheid: The verbal case of German: Investigations into syntax, semantics and perspective. Vol. 53 Mouton Grammar Library Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1999, ISBN 3-1101-6492-2 , S: 201
  5. ↑ Ines Balcik, Klaus Röhe, Verena Wróbel: PONS The great German grammar. PONS, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-12-561561-8 , p. 243
  6. ^ Helmut Berschin , Julio Fernández-Sevilla, Josef Felixberger: The Spanish language. Distribution, history, structure. 3. Edition. Georg Olms, Hildesheim / Zurich / New York 2005, ISBN 3-487-12814-4 , p. 237.
  7. ↑ Patricia Fernández Martín: Análisis de la construcción ser / estar + participio en diversos documentos del archivo municipal de Alcalá de Henares (Siglos XIII - XVII). Master thesis. Madrid 2008, pp. 4-32.
  8. ↑ Werner Abraham: Thoughts on the passive voice in German and other languages, “Argument hypothesis” and “Aspect hypothesis.” Center for General Linguistics, Language Typology and Universality Research , Berlin 2000, pp. 1–35.
  9. ^ Justo Fernández López: Passive, Pasiva (Recop.).
  10. ↑ Olga Rösch: Investigations into passive-valued functional verb structures in contemporary German: a contribution to functional valence grammar. Vol. 8 contributions to German linguistics, Buske Verlag, Hamburg 1994, p. 64 f.
  11. ↑ Karl Brugmann: The origin of the apparent subject es in the Germanic and Romance languages. In: Reports on the negotiations of the royal Saxon societies in Leipzig. Vol. 69, no. 5., Teubner, Leipzig 1917.
  12. ↑ Haruyuki Saito: The past participle in Tocharian. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2006, ISBN 3-4470-5330-5 , p. 59
  13. ^ Daniel Schnorbusch: Diathesen, PSV syntax accompanying sheets. Winter semester 2012/2013, 6th cover sheet, University of Munich, pp. 31–38
  14. ↑ Manuel Iglesias Bango: Verbos aspectuales y verbos auxiliares en español. Universidad de León, pp. 253-270.
  15. ↑ Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein: Copula verbs and copula sentences: intersilingual and intralinguistic aspects. (= Linguistic Works. Volume 512). De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-484-30512-0 , p. 203.
  16. ↑ Claudia Maienborn: The logical form of copula-sets. (= Studia grammatica). De Gruyter, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-05-008227-5 , p. 161.
  17. ^ David Brian Roby: Aspect and the Categorization of States: The Case of Ser and Estar in Spanish. John Benjamin Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-90-272-0581-0 .
  18. ↑ Violeta Demonte: Semántica y sintaxis de las construcciones con 'ser' y 'estar'. In: Revista española de lingüística. Año 9th bevel. l. Enero-Junio ​​(1979), pp. 133-171.
  19. ^ Stefan Enzinger: causative and perceptive infinitive constructions: syntactic variation and semantic aspect. Vol. 70 Studia grammatica, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, ISBN 3-0500-6231-2 , pp. 183-184
  20. ↑ Jimena Ruiz: Spanish Grammar for Dummies. Wiley, Weinheim 2015, ISBN 978-3-527-71116-1 , p. 185.
  21. ^ Karl-Ernst Sommerfeldt , Günter Starke, Dieter Nerius (eds.): Introduction to the grammar and orthography of contemporary German. Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig 1981, p. 85 f.
  22. ↑ Process passive - use and restrictions. hispanoteca.de
  23. ↑ curso de español. Chapter 8: ser and estar, gerundio, passive and the German man
  24. ^ Justo Fernández López: The German passive voice - conjugation. Conjugation de la pasiva en alemán. hispanoteca.eu
  25. ↑ "Ser". Conjugacion.es
  26. ↑ "Ser". konjugator.reverso.net
  27. ↑ Passive conjugation of the German verb “bestrahlen”. verbformen.de
  28. ↑ Margarita Görrissen: Practice Grammar. Spanish. Pons, Stuttgart 2013, ISBN 978-3-12-561954-8 , p. 240.
  29. ↑ curso de español. Chapter 8: ser and estar, gerundio, passive and the German man
  30. ^ Hans-Georg Beckmann: New Spanish grammar. dnf-Verlag, Göttingen 1994, ISBN 3-9803483-3-4 , pp. 176-183.
  31. ↑ Conjugation of the German verb irradiate. verbformen.de
  32. ↑ "Estar". conjugacion.es
  33. ↑ "Estar". konjugator.reverso.net
  34. ↑ Medial constructions. La voz media / Las construcciones medias (Recop.), Justo Fernández López, hispanoteca.eu
  35. ↑ Reflexive passive voice in Spanish - La pasiva refleja en español. Justo Fernández López, hispanoteca.eu