Structural verbs in the Spanish language

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The term structural verbs is used in this article to summarize the non-lexical verbs of Spanish , i.e. the verb classes of the copula, auxiliary and modal verbs , in contrast to the full verbs.

Explanations, summary

The morphology of the Spanish verb has only a small selection of suffixes available, so the verbs always end in either the suffix -ar , -er or -ir . In contrast to the full verbs , verbos plenos , the structural verbs are not able to form a predicate without the help of another word . While full verbs can appear as a predicate, predicado , the copula verbs appear together with a predicative , atributo and the auxiliary verbs and modal verbs are used in conjunction with a full verb to form compound predicates.

Characteristics of structural verbs

In contrast to the full verbs, they form a separate group consisting of:

Copulative verbs are expanded with a noun, pronoun or adverb to form a multi-part predicate, which is then referred to as a “nominal predicate” because of the use of nominal parts of speech in the grammar of Spanish. So their function is to make the words in question predictable. Auxiliary verbs are functional words that are used to form the analytical forms of the verb. Modal verbs are regularly combined with full verbs to form a multi-part verbal predicate. The choice of the auxiliary verb or the copula determines whether the sentence to be formed is active, with “haber” or in passive, with “ser” for actions taking place or “estar” for completed actions.

They can be combined into a unit, but without showing a specific group designation for these verbal groups in the linguistic literature so far, a group that is therefore not capable of forming the predicate on its own. Based on Weber (2005), they could be referred to as “structural verbs”, “verbos estructurados” in Spanish. In achieving this goal, they form “complex predicates” or compound predicates, but in their own specific, inherent and characteristic way.

Marcos Marín u. a. (1998) classify the verbs, verbos no predicativos, as follows:

  • verbos copulativos : ser, estar ;
  • verbos auxiliaries : haber, ser, estar ;
  • verbos semicopulativos o cuasi-copulativos : quedarse, volverse, ponerse, parecer and llamarse ;
  • verbos cuasi-auxiliaries : abrir, acabar, alcanzar, andar, comenzar, continuar, deber, decir, empezar, hallarse, ir, llevar, quedar, resultar, seguir, tener, venir ;
  • verbos modales : poder, querer, saber, soler, necesitar, tener que, haber que and deber de .

Copular heirs and copular substitutes

In addition to the two copula verbs "estar" and "ser", there are also a number of other verbs in Spanish which, in addition to their function as full verbs, can also be used as copula verbs. In this function, they then lose their lexical value and only mean an existence. Because while the predicative verbs, verbos predicativos, have full semantic meaning and appear as the semantic or syntactic head of the predicate, the copulative verbs, verbos copulativos , act as “connecting words” between subject and attribute. - Examples: 

Juana conducía el coche de su hermano. conducía ist der Kopf des Prädikats
José está cansado. está ist zu einem „Bindewort“ zwischen Subjekt und Attribut geworden.

Due to their ability to express state of affairs even as full verbs, they are particularly suitable as copular replacements , verbos pseudocopulativos . Unlike the real copula verbs, however, they are semantically not empty.

Regarding the number of verbs that belong to the copula verbs in Spanish, verbo copulativo o verbo copulativo , there is no unanimity among the various Hispanists; Felixberger (1974) includes eighteen verbs for this. In addition to the two most important copula verbs estar and ser , other significant verbs such as quedarse , volverse , ponerse , parecer and llamarse are mentioned. - Examples: 

 Volverse: Miguel se volvió loco de alegría. sich wandeln; werden
 Hacerse: Miguel se hizo el tonto con la fecha de la entrevista de trabajo. sich verwandeln; werden
 Salir: La comida no salió rica. entspringen; werden; hervortreten
 Ponerse: Miguel se puso loco de alegría. werden zu; vorübergehend werden; anfangen

 Seguir: Sigue enfadada conmigo. verfolgen; weiterverfolgen; folgen
 Mantenerse: Miguel se mantuvo callado toda la clase. bleiben; sich erhalten
 Quedarse: Miguel se quedó de piedra. bleiben; dableiben; zurückbleiben

 Resultar: El problema resultó difícil. sich erweisen; sich ergeben
 Salir: Salió enfermo del examen. ausgehen; hinausgehen
 Llamarse: Ese alumno se llama Pedro. heißen; sich nennen
 Andar: Anda despistado todo el día. gehen; wandeln
 Creerse: Miguel se cree listo. sich halten für; glauben
 Sentirse: Miguel se siente indispuesto. sich fühlen

The differentiation is difficult because there are a number of (full) verbs that can take on the function of copula verbs and are then used as such.

Copular verbs have the syntactic function of connecting two elements. This is how they connect the subject of the sentence with a noun or an adjective, the predicative . Together with the noun or the adjective, they form the predicate of a sentence. "Ser" in connection with an adjective assigns a constitutive characteristic to the subject; simplified it classifies and defines the subject. “Estar” in connection with an adjective indicates a state of the subject that has arisen through change or is changeable; in a simplified way, it concretizes the process-like in the subject.

Some Hispanists, Kay-Eduardo González-Vilbazo and Eva-Maria Remberger (2007) also regard the copula verbs as a type of auxiliary verb. Since the copula presented itself as a semantically empty verbal category, i.e. a category that contained only functional, but no lexical, meaning. If the predicate (see also verb phrase ) is formed by means of a copula verb, it is used with a noun or adjectival predicative ; the copula verbs are intransitive state verbs . The copula or the verbs used as a copula are to a certain extent a semantically empty category, i.e. a category that is lexically insignificant and more functional (see also Urindo-European copula ).

The semantic distinction between individual level predicates (ILP) and stage level predicates (SLP) goes back to Carlson (1977) . The copula verb “ser” ( se in / se r / es se re) is used in linguistic contexts that concern the individual predicates (ILP), while the copula verb “estar” ( stand / e sta r / sta re) is mainly used together occur with stage predicates (SLP). - Examples: 

 Juana es inteligente. „individual level predicates (ILP)“ mit „ser“
 Juana está enamorada. „stage level predicates (SLP)“ mit „estar“

Semantically, the individual predicates (ILP, individual level predicates or predicados de nivel individual ) mean those properties that describe the (acting) subject as an individual and not the state of the individual. Such properties ( beings ) are mostly permanent, inherent properties of the individual. Furthermore, they are not specifying or generally valid with regard to a spatio-temporal reference and situation. The copula verb “ser” is only compatible as ILP, predicados de nivel individual and therefore cannot occur in a reference situation such as “just now” or “at this moment”. 

 Juana es espigada. Juana ist hochgewachsen. (ILP, predicados de nivel individual) mit „ser“

Incorrect would be: 

 *Juana está espigada. oder *Juana es espigada en este momento.

The stage predicates (SLP, stage level predicates or predicados de estadio ), on the other hand, implement temporary or episodic properties of a subject. Therefore they can be described as specific with regard to their spatio-temporal references and the event situation. 

 Estas cerezas son agrias porque así fueron cultivadas. Diese Kirschen sie sind sauer weil sie so waren gezüchtet. „individual level predicates (ILP)“ mit „ser“ Presente simple + Pretérito indefinido de indicativo
 Estas cerezas están agrias porque todavía no están maduras. Diese Kirschen sie sind sauer weil sie noch nicht sie sind reif. „stage level predicates (SLP)“ mit „estar“ Presente simple + Presente simple

The copula verbs estar and ser

The two copula verbs "estar / ser" can be regarded as auxiliary verbs, as they form a semantically empty category that has primarily a functional but not a lexical meaning. In the Spanish language, generally speaking, the differentiation between the representation as "happening" or representation as "state" is much more developed than in the German language. In Spanish, the choice of copula verbs “estar vs. ser “also strongly depends on the speaker's perspective ( pragmatics ).

Only the copula verb “ser” can form a process passive, the constructions formed with “estar” and the participle , participio pasado o perfecto are not process passive, here the participio pasado o perfecto behaves like an adjective. There are no agentive prepositional phrases; "Agentive verbs" or "actional verbs" are verbs of movement and belong to the "action verbs". 

La casa fue arruinada por el enigmo. indefinido + participio pasado. Vorgangspassiv
La casa estaba arruinada. (* por el enigmo) imperfecto + participio pasado, die Beifügung durch den Feind, por el enigmo wäre ungrammatisch. Zustandspassiv

In the case of a perfect state, the fact that the offense, the action that took place over a certain period of time, has a known beginning and end. An imperfect state lacks this aspect. Adjectives combined with "ser" represent imperfective states, those combined with "estar" represent perfective states.

Whether the pair of opposites “ser / estar” has something to do with the imperfective and perfective aspect forms , so u. a. Luján (1981) or Kees Hengeveld (1986) remain open in the Hispanic scientific discussion. However, both copula verbs can be combined with both the perfective and imperfective aspect forms , only the auxiliary verb “estar” indicates a “specific topical time”, according to Klein (1994). The topic time TT is the time interval in which something is spoken and for which the utterance claims validity.

The origin of the two Spanish forms for “sein” lies in the Latin positional verbs Latin stāre and Latin sedēre , which went into the Spanish verbs estar and ser .

  • as well as the original stāre ( Latin stāre ; infinitive present to stand, stand ) the way → * estare → estar
  • The original sedēre ( Latin sedēre ; infinitive present tense sit, sit ) took the route → * seder → seer → ser, or esse → èssere (in Italian) → ésser (in Catalan) → ser

Positional verbs are understood in this context as two types of verbs that describe the position of the subject in more detail, for example when asked "where" describe an action such as B. sit, stand, hang or when asked "where" with the verbs z. B. place, place, set explain the activity in more detail.

In contrast to German - here one uses the auxiliary verbs haben , werden , sein - in Spanish all compound tenses are formed with the auxiliary verb haber . But the two auxiliary verbs estar and ser are needed for the construction of the passive tenses. Estar or ser the Spanish equivalents of are " German  will " or " German  be " as Kopulaverben or auxiliary verbs .

There are also verbos pseudocopulativos o semipredicativos in Spanish . These exercise a similar function in the sentence as the actual copula verbs. - Some examples: salir , parecer , andar .

The distinction between the two “forms of being” often causes certain difficulties for the German native speaker, interference errors occur. An essential difference when using the German verb “sein” is that in Spanish “estar” in its predicative position can also express the aspect , i.e. the time limit, which is not possible with the Spanish verb “ser” .

  • Estar: acción, cambio de estado, condición, emoción, estado (estado de salud, estado de ánimo), localización, posición, precios fluctuantes. (Stages predicates stage level predicates) So facts with time priority , momentary "so-being" or temporary states, dispositions or properties before or after a change as well as specific Topikzeit TT by Klein (1994).
  • Ser: carácter, caracteristica, características permanentes, clase, color, descripción, evento, fechas, forma, frases impersonales, identidad, marca, origen, ocupación, profesión, pertenencia, precios en general, procedencia, relaciones, sucesos sociales. (Individual level predicates). So facts or actions, i. w. S. without "temporal value", the "general being" or permanent (being) states or properties.

Spanish uses the verb "estar" just as often. For the German native speaker, it represents the more difficult "form of being" and, according to Scholz (2009), leads to the Ranschburg phenomenon . The Ranschburg phenomenon, also known as the inhibition of similarity, describes a memory inhibition when reproducing similar learning content that was presented with poor differentiation (simultaneously or promptly).

Overview; Use of estar

  • mostly non-permanent being
  • to describe events and actions that are limited in time, i.e. temporary conditions; to communicate perceived changes from the speaker's point of view or to express that the states, events or actions are the result of a process ;
  • for the subjective description of temporary conditions, events or actions;
    • for example in the construction “estar” + adverbio + “que” + subjuntivo ;
  • Statements about the status of being;
  • for local localization, meaning there is a subject, but not to the location of an event, in the sense of place be given;
  • to indicate the course of the day and year with "estamos a fecha", estamos en - examples: Estamos a martes y trece. Estamos en junio. ;
  • with the past participle, participio perfecto , to indicate the event of an action - example: El coche está destrozado .  ;
  • in the construction estar + gerundio - example: Me está molestando . ;
  • in constructions estar + infinitivo - example: Mis hermanos están al llegar . ;
  • when used in analytical passive constructions with estar in a completed action ( state passive ). - Example: Las barcas están construidas The boats are already built ; * with certain adjectives, e.g. B. - lleno, sano, solo, muerto, roto, enfadado, contento, cansado - etc. estar describes a state that is about to occur or that lasts for a certain period of time, but not for a longer period of time, in the sense of the German "to become" . - example:
  • Él está loco He's just crazy right now.
Versions and examples for estar
  • estar is used to indicate the where in the narrow and broader sense. Simplified : only temporary states of being that depend on the respective circumstances; an implicit “becoming”. - Examples:
¿Dónde está Lucas? Wo ist L.?;
Luis está en el baño L. ist im Bad;
Estamos aquí Wir sind hier;
Sant Jordi está en el sur de Mallorca S. J. liegt im Süden von Mallorca;
Cuba está a 90 millas de Estados Unidos Kuba liegt 90 Meilen von den USA entfernt;
Manolo estaba en el mejor momento de su carrera M. war auf dem Höhepunkt seiner Laufbahn;
Estuve un año en paro Ich war ein Jahr arbeitslos;
El país está en crisis Das Land ist in der Krise.
  • As a full verb, estar means "to be present". - Examples:
¿Está Laura? Ist Laura da?;
Te llamé pero no estabas Ich rief dich an, aber du warst nicht da.
  • estar is the copula verb for adjectives, adverbs and groups of words that describe state and well-being. - Examples:
La sopa está fría Die Suppe ist kalt;
Las camisas estaban todavía húmedas Die Hemden waren noch feucht;
El mono está sucio Der Overall ist schmutzig;
Los plátanos estaban verdes Die Bananen waren unreif;
¿Cómo estás? Wie geht’s dir?
Estoy maluca estos días Mir geht’s dieser Tage nicht gut;
Estuve cinco días con fiebre Ich hatte fünf Tage Fieber;
Estábamos que no cabíamos en nuestro gozo Wir waren überglücklich;
Estoy a régimen desde ayer Ich halte seit gestern streng Diät.
  • estar is the copula verb for expressions that describe an appearance or behavior that is perceived as extraordinary. - Examples:
Rosa está más guapa con el pelo corto Rosa sieht mit kurzem Haar besser aus;
Qué rica está la sopa Wie gut die Suppe schmeckt;
¿Por qué están tan tranquilos los críos? Warum sind die Kinder so ruhig?

Overview; Use of ser

A semantic distinction, that is, a distinction based on the meaning of the words that accompany the verb ser :

  • mostly permanent being
  • in the case of definitions and identity information, such as information about the profession ;
  • for statements about the fundamental being , ser the essence of being, esencia ; in simplified terms, they are hardly changeable states of being that describe a more extensive section of life or even the whole of life;
  • when verbalizing information about origin , material, possession and group membership ( nationality ), being plus quality;
  • for the spatial and temporal classification of an event or an action;
  • indicates the spatial position only in the case of a permanent, permanent and fixed location or location;
  • for objective, neutral description of people and their essential characteristics ;
  • for the objective description of permanent conditions;
  • to indicate the exact date , time and prices ;
  • when used in analytical passive constructions , with ser in terms of changes taking place action ( process passive , pasiva con ser o pasiva de proceso ). - example:
Las barcas fueron construidas en seis meses Die Kähne wurden in sechs Monaten gebaut. Ser entspräche dem deutschen werden und estar dem deutschen sein;
  • accompanied by specific adjectives, e.g. B. feliz, culpable, inocente, inteligente, necesario, importante etc., to assign a property a priori to an object or a concept ;
    • so in the constructions of impersonal expression, formed with the conjunction “que”, which then often trigger the subjuntivo . These are sentences that in German regularly begin with "Es ist". - Examples: "ser" + "noun" + "que" + "subjuntivo"; "Ser" + "adjective" + "que" + "subjuntivo";
  • to form gap and pseudo- gap sets or blocking sets .

Ser explains a state, an event or a sequence of actions that is permanently given, in the sense of the German "being". - example: 

Él es loco Er ist ein Wahnsinniger.
¡Soy un ser humano! Ich bin (besitze) ein menschliches Sein! Ich bin ein menschliches Wesen!
Versions and examples for ser
  • ser serves to classify and identify: something or someone is or is like something or someone. Simplified : characteristic, unchangeable being or traits of the subject that is independent of the respective circumstances . - Examples:
Pablo es médico. P. ist Arzt;
Jorge es el último de la fila. J. ist der Letzte in der Schlange;
Esas señoras son argentinas. Diese Damen sind Argentinierinnen;
Montserrat Figueras es la esposa de Jordi Savall. M. F. ist die Ehefrau von J. S.;
Maite es ella, yo soy Rosa. Maite ist sie, ich bin Rosa;
Eres un cielo. Du bist ein Schatz;
¿Quiénes sois vosotros? Wer seid ihr?;
¿Qué es esto? Was ist das?;
¿Cuál es la diferencia? Was ist der Unterschied?;
Esto es un churro. Das ist ein Churro;
La reunión fue un éxito. Das Treffen war ein Erfolg;
Vivir es luchar Leben heißt Kämpfen;
El/ Un problema es que sigue nevando. Das/ Ein Problem ist, dass es weiter schneit.
  • ser is used to predict with definite or indefinite set expressions. - Examples:
Dos más dos son cuatro. Zwei plus zwei gleich vier;
Las dos cantidades son iguales. Beide Mengen sind gleich;
Una peseta no era mucho. Eine Pesete war nicht viel;
Todo esto es demasiado para mí. Das alles ist zu viel für mich.
  • ser is used to predict the time. - Examples:
¿Qué hora es? Wie spät ist es?;
Son las doce y media. Es ist halb eins;
Ya es tarde. Es ist bereits zu spät;
En Lima es verano. In Lima ist es Sommer;
Es aún pronto para decidir. Es ist noch zu früh für eine Entscheidung;
Es hora de actuar. Es ist Zeit zum Handeln.
  • ser is or replaces a verb of the event. - Examples:
La final es el domingo. Das Finale ist (findet statt) am Sonntag;
La cita será en mi casa. Das Treffen wird bei mir zu Hause sein;
Todo fue por mi retraso. Meine Verspätung war an allem schuld;
No era para que te pusieras así. Das war kein Grund, um dich so aufzuführen.
  • ser is the copula verb for adjectives that denote properties. - Examples:
Rusia es enorme. Russland ist riesengroß;
Las calles eran muy estrechas. Die Straßen waren sehr eng;
Algunos buenos jugadores son bajitos. Einige gute Spieler sind kleingewachsen;
¿Por qué son redondas las estrellas? Warum sind die Sterne kugelförmig?;
El hombre es libre. Der Mensch ist frei;
Los pobladores eran hospitalarios y pacíficos. Die Einwohner waren gastfreundlich und friedfertig;
Serán pobres, pero no son tontos. Sie sind wohl arm, aber nicht dumm;
Aquella victoria fue decisiva. Jener Sieg war entscheidend;
Nuestra clientela es internacional. Unsere Kundschaft ist international.
  • ser is the copula verb for groups of words that are used to specify characteristics. - Examples:
La caja es de cartón. Die Schachtel ist aus Pappe;
La blusa era a cuadros. Die Bluse hatte ein Karo-Muster;
¿De dónde eres? Wo kommst du her?;
Soy de un pueblo del norte. Ich komme aus einem Dorf im Norden.
  • ser + possessive pronouns express possession. - Examples: Todo esto es mío This is all mine; Vendía pisos que no eran suyos He sold apartments that did not belong to him;
  • ser and the preposition de to express the origin, the origin. - Examples:
Este bolso es de cuero, ¿verdad? Diese Tasche ist aus Leder, nicht wahr?;
Este carruaje es del alcalde. Diese Kutsche stammt vom Bürgermeister.

Semicopulative verbs

They are mostly recruited from the group of “predicative verbs”, which then appear or act as copula in certain sentence constructions and thus partly lose their original semantic meaning. Predicative verbs include in particular:

  • Verbs that describe a process;
  • Verbs denoting a state, feeling, relationship;
  • Verbs that designate a statement.

Semicopulative verbs, verbos pseudocopulativos o semicopulativos can be exchanged for copulative verbs. Verb examples for this are permanecer, seguir, andar, terminar, resultar, continuar, acabar, acabar, quedarse, ponerse, hacerse, revelarse, devenir, volverse, mostrarse, asemejar etc. - Examples: 

Juana se siente triste. Juana está triste.
Juana se ha hecho monja. Lucía es monja.
Juana se encuentra estupendamente Ana está estupendamente.
Pedro anda apesadumbrado estos últimos días.  Pedro está, parece, apesadumbrado estos últimos días.

Auxiliary verbs in Spanish

The auxiliary verbs , verbos auxiliaries, can only form the predicate of a sentence with the help of an inflected main verb, verbo completo . They are used for the formation of the passive tenses , the process passive with ser and the state passive with estar , the compound tenses , with haber and in the verbal periphrases , perífrasis verbales .

Strictly speaking, only the connections from the auxiliary verb plus the infinitive, e.g. acabar de + infinitivo, auxiliary verb plus gerundio, e.g. seguir + gerundio, are considered perífrasis verbales . A combination of auxiliary + participle can only be regarded as perífrasis verbales if the auxiliary verb ser has been used, perífrasis pasiva . - Examples: 

la casa fue construido en 1934 Vorgangspassiv, pasiva con ser
estábamos jugando en el bosque junto a la carretera verbale Umschreibung, perífrasis verbal
has hecho Pretérito perfecto de indicativo

In contrast to the syntactically, simple tenses (only from full verbs, finite verbs), the compound tenses, tiempos compuestos, as syntactically more complex or periphrastic tense forms (with an auxiliary verb construction, finite verb in connection with a periphrase or infinite verb) have a Similarity to verbal periphrases or verbal paraphrases , perífrasis verbales on. - Examples: 

Los ojos de Juan se han inflamado. Pretérito perfecto de indicativo mit dem Hilfsver „haber“
Los ojos de Juan están inflamados. „estar + participio“ Vollendung der Handlung

The auxiliar, verbo auxiliar and verb take a morphologically defined form.

Modal verbs in the Spanish language

Modal verbs, verbos modales are a means of expressing the modality , modalidad lingüística they offer great difficulties for translation or transfer into another language because these verbs have a strongly polyfunctional semantics.

The modal adverbs, adverbio de modo, are to be distinguished from the modal verbs, the latter include the words así, bien, como, cual, igual, mal, mejor (de bien) etc., they are adverbs of manner. The designation can be misleading, because despite the common part of the word “modal” there is no direct reference to the linguistic concept of modality (i.e. concepts such as possibility and necessity) in some words , and therefore no content-related relationship with the term “modal verb”. Adverbs that designate the categories of modality, such as "perhaps, likely" , are instead referred to in this terminology as " sentence adverbs" or "modal words ", complemento circunstancial .

This type of structural verb does not designate an action, but the relationship between the subject of the sentence and the process that is verbalized in the sentence through the full verb in the infinitive, as well as the behavior of the speaker towards the reality of the statement.

The consideration of the modal verbs in the textual context seems to be important for the translation work, which is important for the recognition and the delimitation of the different semantic qualities, the specific meaning of these verbs. It regularly shows that the "aspect languages" (and Spanish can be counted here; through the Pretérito indefinido de indicativo or Pretérito imperfecto de indicativo ) have a lower number of modal verbs than the "non-aspect languages", such as German. - Examples: 

* poder; querer; saber; soler; necesitar; tener que; hay que; haber que; deber de.

poder können, im Sinne der Möglichkeit und Erlaubnis von außen;
querer wollen, als Willensäußerung,
saber können, im Sinne von Wissen und Fähigkeit,
soler können, im Sinne von etwas zu tun pflegen;
necesitar brauchen
tener que müssen, eine zwingende oder äußere Notwendigkeit, Druck ausüben von außen;
hay que man muss, ein unpersönlicher Zwang;
deber que verpflichtet, eine Pflicht oder innere Notwendigkeit, auch im Sinne eines inneren Zwangs;
haber que etwas machen zu, etwas Vertraglich geregelt, eine abgesprochene Regelung.

The German modal verb "shall" is used differently in Spanish than in German: 

deber sollen, als Pflicht, aus einem inneren Zwang;
tener que sollen, als Notwendigkeit, aus einem äußeren Zwang;
haber de sollen, aus einer vertraglichen Verpflichtung, Bindung an Absprache.

The German modal verb "haben" is paraphrased in Spanish as follows: 

poder + infinitivo dürfen, im Sinne die Erlaubnis haben;
no deber + infinitivo nicht dürfen, keine Erlaubnis haben;
tener permiso para + infinitivo dürfen, die Berechtigung haben;
no se puede man hat keine Erlaubnis

The German modal verb for "like" is as follows in Spanish: 

gustar gefallen, gern tun, auch gern haben;
preferir bevorzugen, lieber mögen, präferieren; aus einer Auswahl etwas Bevorzugen;
tener ganas de + infinitivo Lust haben auf, aus einem Verlagen heraus mögen;
decir que + subjuntivo es tun mögen, eine gewünschte Aufforderung;
Verb im Imperativo sie mögen es endlich tun.

In the German language, the modality can be through the verb mode, i.e. the indicative or subjunctive, as well as through the modal verbs (then additionally the optative and imperative ), such as “must” ( necessity , assumption), “can” ( ability , permission , Possibility , presumption ), "like" (wish, presumption), "should" (eventuality, order, recommendation , presumption), "want" ( will , necessity), "may" (permission, presumption) as well as modal words such as "Maybe", "allegedly", "apparently", "possibly", "certainly", "probably" etc. can be expressed. The term modality is thus related to other terms such as evidentiality and speech reproduction . Especially when the modality is understood as a propositional speaker attitude and the three modality areas of assertion or assertion, evaluation and volition are reproduced in accordance with the three propositional attitudes of saying, believing and willing .

The modal verbs allow the speaker in the Germanic languages ​​to represent his different types of attitudes. This separates the modal verbs from the concept of the mode insofar as the mode refers to the reality of the action being realized, but the modal verbs provide information about the subject's position in relation to the action itself. A subject must, can, like, should, wants, may, etc. perform or realize an action.

Two terms are important: the deontic modality , which refers to events that have not (yet) actually happened, but whose occurrence is desired (extrasubjective, "what should be"), and the epistemic modality for what is considered possible ( intrasubjective, "what may be"). This is about the type of prerequisites that cause a speaker to make a modalized linguistic utterance. In the deontic use of the modal verbs, the state of affairs denoted by the proposition is not given as factual, but viewed as possible or permitted, necessary or desired, i.e. the circumstances of the obligation, of being allowed or prohibited are important. In epistemic use, on the other hand, the modal verbs relate to the speaker attitude, the circumstances of the assumption and the knowledge are decisive. The German modal verbs are polysemic with regard to these two terms ; in other words, they are characterized by two possible readings.

Verbal modes, modal verbs, modal adverbs and modal particles are also available for the Romance languages ​​with different weightings to express the modality. From a translation point of view, it is the missing or insufficiently defined translation equivalents of the German modal verbs or modality expressions that make it difficult to translate into the Spanish language - a phenomenon that is shown by the fact that a long series of rules, explanations and Examples of languages ​​in Spanish must be given, with different translations to be selected depending on the context .

The modal verbs , verbos modales , can in principle be linked to any verb. They are verbs that change the content of another verb. From a semantic point of view, the modal verbs become "meaningless" in their connection. The modal verbs have no direct lexical meaning, rather they change the meaning for the following verbs; they clarify the relationship between the subject of the sentence and the activities to be described. The following verbs take on these tasks; some examples: querer want, poder can, tener que must, hay que. one must, deber should, need necesitar . The modal verbs are always followed by the infinitive . German modal verbs such as tener que , must, (shall) deber , shall, (must) , may , poder , can , querer , want , like or want and to a certain extent still be , (not) needed cannot always be directly inserted into the Spanish broadcast and vice versa.

In sentences with modal verbs, both the modal verb and the infinite verb can be negated, as a result of which a semantic difference can arise in each case. - Examples: 

 Tu gato no puede ladrar. Dein Kater nicht er kann bellen.
 Aber Tu gato puede no ladrar. (Vielleicht) dein Kater er kann nicht bellen.

Sentence order of the object pronouns in modal verbs and verbal periphrases

If a sentence contains a modal verb or a verbal periphrase , perífrasis verbal is often deviated from the rule that the unstressed object pronoun must come before the conjugated verb, i.e. before the auxiliary verb in the compound tenses. With the object pronouns, pronombres de complemento directo u indirecto, a distinction is made between direct and indirect object pronouns. - example: 

Lo he comprado en el supermercado. Es ich habe gekauft im Supermarkt.

The following applies to object pronouns in sentences with modal verbs or verbal periphrase; either the pronoun comes before the finite verb or after the infintivo or gerundio . If added, the pronoun merges with the infinitive or gerund into one word. - Examples: 

Lo puedes comprar en el mercado central. oder aber Puedes comprarlo en el mercado central.
Te estoy hablando, ¿me escuchas? oder auch Estoy hablándote, ¿me escuchas?

Verbal phrases

Spanish uses a large number of verbal periphrases, perífrasis verbales , which (as well as adverbial terms ) serve to specify the lexical aspect of the verb (i.e. the time limit or the course of the action). These verb constructions can be formed in connection with Infinitivo , Participo or Gerundio . In addition to the synthetic future tense ( futuro imperfecto ), there is also a periphrastic future tense (formation with ir + a + infinitive ) , comparable to English . Examples: 

 Voy comprendiendo la situación.  Allmählich begreife ich die Situation.
 No dejan de trabajar en el sol.  Sie arbeiten unaufhörlich in der Sonne.
 Su nuevo libro lo tiene escrito.  Sein neues Buch hat er fertiggeschrieben.
 Vamos a comprar un refresco.  Wir werden (jetzt) ein Erfrischungsgetränk kaufen.

Most of the Romance verbal phrases, here especially in Spanish, are typically rendered in the German language by an adverb or something similar. 

 Vengo de decirselo.  Ich habe es ihr gerade gesagt.
 Se empeñan en comprarlo.  Sie wollen es unbedingt kaufen.
 Llevo escrito dos libros. Ich habe schon zwei Bücher geschrieben.

literature

  • Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein: Copula verbs and copula sentences: interlingual and intralingual aspects. Vol. 512 Linguistic Works, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 3-484-30512-6
  • Claudia Maienborn: The logical form of copula sentences. Studia grammatica, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-05-008227-5
  • Heinrich Weber : Structural Verbs in German. Structural verbs in German. In: Andreae Sroka. Danuta Stanulewicz, Roman Kalisz, Wilfried Kürschner, Cäcilia Klaus (eds.): De lingua er litteris: Studia in honorem Casimiri. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 2005, pp. 1-12. OCLC 824294418
  • María Beatriz Fontanella de Weinberg : Los auxiliares españoles. Anales del Instituto de Linguistica de Cuyo (1970) 10, 61-73

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ after Heinrich Weber : Structural Verbs in German. In: Danuta Stanulewicz , Roman Kalisz , Wilfried Kürschner , Cäcilia Klaus (eds.): De lingua et litteris: Studia in honorem Cassimiri Andreae Sroka. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 2005, OCLC 824294418 , ISBN 837-3-26267-9
  2. ^ Nueva gramática. Basica de la lengua española. Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española. Espasa Libros, SLU, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-670-3471-4 , pp. 154-162
  3. ↑ Predicate - Predicado (Recop.), Justo Fernández López, hispanoteca.eu
  4. ↑ Reinhard Kiesler: Speech system technology. Introduction to sentence analysis for Romanists. Winter, Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-8253-6409-0 , p. 33
  5. ↑ Depending on the lexical element, a predicate can be "verbal" (verbal, i.e. indicating an activity) or "nominal" (nominal, i.e. indicating a state). The "verbal predicate" is formed by the personal form of a verb. The “nominal predicate”, on the other hand, consists of two parts: a functional verb , which primarily contains the grammatical information, and a predicative ( predicate noun ) with the lexical information.
  6. ^ Die Syntax, pp. 1–11
  7. ↑ free translation into Spanish, not backed up by scientific literature
  8. ^ Francisco Marcos Marín, F. Javier Satorre Grau, María Luisa Viejo Sánchez: Gramática española. Síntesis, Madrid 1998, p. 511.
  9. ↑ modified from Francisco A. Marcos Marín (1998), supplemented by the individual example verbs and the heading verbos modales
  10. ↑ on copula verbs, see also Proto-Indo-European copula , verbo copulativo protoindoeuropeo
  11. ↑ Elena Santillán: Spanish Morphosyntax. A study book for teaching, learning and practicing. Narr, Tübingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8233-6980-6 , p. 52
  12. ↑ At the level of the semantics of the relationship (will relation ) between the promised clear or designated object ( denotation ) and the linguistic characters ( Denotans ) understood
  13. ↑ Copular substitutes. Verbs with the function of copula replacement - Verbos pseudocopulativos. Justo Fernández López, hispanoteca.eu
  14. ↑ Verbos semipredicativos o semicopulativos. murciaeduca.es
  15. ↑ Josef Felixberger: Studies on the language of the Spanish proverb. Fink, Munich 1974, p. 152.
  16. ↑ Copular substitutes. Verbs with the function of copula replacement verbs pseudocopulativos. Justo Fernández López hispanoteca.eu
  17. ^ The copular sentences, alphabetically. hispanoteca.eu
  18. ↑ Joyce Bruhn de Garavito: Eventive and Stative Passives: The Role of Transfer in the Acquisition of Ser and Estar by German and English L1 Speakers. In: Joseph Collentine u. a. (Ed.): Selected Proceedings of the 11th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. Cascadilla Proceedings Project, Somerville, MA 2009, pp. 27-38.
  19. ^ Helmut Berschin , Julio Fernández-Sevilla, Josef Felixberger: The Spanish language. Distribution, history, structure. 3. Edition. Georg Olms, Hildesheim / Zurich / New York 2005, ISBN 3-487-12814-4 , p. 273.
  20. ↑ Eva-Maria Remberger, Kay-Eduardo González-Vilbazo: The copula in Romansh. In: Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein: Copula verbs and copula sentences: intersilingual and intralinguistic aspects. (= Linguistic Works. Volume 512). De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-484-30512-0 , pp. 201-227.
  21. ↑ Eva-Maria Remberger, Kay-Eduardo González-Vilbazo: The copula in Romansh. In: Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein: Copula verbs and copula sentences: intersilingual and intralinguistic aspects. (= Linguistic Works. Volume 512). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-484-30512-0 , pp. 1–27.
  22. ↑ Claudia Maienborn: states - stages - stand expressions: On the semantics and pragmatics of copula-predicative constructions. In: Linguistic Reports. 183, 2000, pp. 271-307.
  23. ↑ Claudia Maienborn: situational context and the stages / individuals-distinction in copula-predicative constructions. In: ZAS Papers in Linguistics. 14, 1999, pp. 41-64.
  24. ^ Greg Carlson: A unified analysis of the English bare plural. Linguistics and Philosophy 1, 3, (1977), pp. 413-458.
  25. ^ Greg Carlson: Reference to Kinds in English. Garland, New York 1977.
  26. ^ Gerhard Jäger: Stage levels, states, and the semantics of the copula. In: ZAS Papers in Linguistics. 14, 1999, pp. 65-94.
  27. ↑ José Camacho: “Ser” and “Estar”: Individual / Stage level predicates or aspect? Rutgers University, pp. 1-18.
  28. ↑ Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein: Copula verbs and copula sentences: intersilingual and intralinguistic aspects. (= Linguistic Works. Volume 512). De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-484-30512-0 , p. 201.
  29. ↑ The asterisk (*) is used in linguistics, sometimes as the double asterisk , in front of ungrammatic, unacceptable word forms or sentence constructions.
  30. ↑ Manuel Iglesias Bango: Verbos aspectuales y verbos auxiliares en español. Universidad de León, pp. 253-270.
  31. ↑ Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein: Copula verbs and copula sentences: intersilingual and intralinguistic aspects. (= Linguistic Works. Volume 512). De Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-484-30512-0 , p. 203.
  32. ↑ Claudia Maienborn: The logical form of copula-sets. (= Studia grammatica). De Gruyter, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-05-008227-5 , p. 161.
  33. ^ David Brian Roby: Aspect and the Categorization of States: The Case of Ser and Estar in Spanish. John Benjamin Publishing, 2009, ISBN 978-90-272-0581-0 .
  34. ↑ Violeta Demonte: Semántica y sintaxis de las construcciones con 'ser' y 'estar'. In: Revista española de lingüística. Año 9th bevel. l. Enero-Junio ​​(1979), pp. 133-171.
  35. ^ Stefan Enzinger: causative and perceptive infinitive constructions: syntactic variation and semantic aspect. Vol. 70 Studia grammatica, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, ISBN 3-0500-6231-2 , pp. 183-184
  36. ↑ Marta E. Luján: The Spanish copulas as aspectual indicators. In: Lingua. 54, 1981, pp. 165-210.
  37. ↑ Kees Hengeveld: Copular 'verbs in a functional grammar of Spanish. In: Linguistics. 24, 1986, pp. 393-420.
  38. ↑ Wolfgang Klein : Time in language. Routledge, London 1994.
  39. ↑ Wolfgang Klein (1994) argues that the topic time (TT) should be viewed as the third parameter for the temporal interpretation, in addition to the speaking or utterance time S according to Reichenbach (1947) and the event or situation time E (the time at which the situation described is true). This is because all tenses that do not designate a current action require an additional observation time, the topic time TT ( topic time ). It is situated in time relative to the action; however, it does not have to be implemented explicitly. According to Klein, the tense forms do not relate the situation time E and the utterance time S to one another, but rather the utterance time S and the topic time are related to one another. Similarly, Reichenbach, where the tense the relationship between utterance time S and the reference time R is expressed, but not utterance time S and time situation E . In German about showing Präteritum that the Topikzeit TT prior to the time of utterance S is located. The relationship between the topic time TT and the situation time E is regulated by aspect ratios: the topic time can e.g. B. lie in the situation time E , or vice versa. Wolfgang Klein summarizes the considerations conceptually as follows: Situation time "T sit " (it corresponds to the event time E, i.e. the time in which the event, fact, process, state, situation, action takes place, which is indicated by the verb contained in the sentence) The interval in which the action occurs is related to the infinite verb component ; Topical time TT (it corresponds to the observation or reference time R, which was created exclusively for the description of the perfect tempo ), is related to the finite verb component; Utterance time "T u " (it corresponds to the speaking time S, the time in which the sentence is uttered)
  40. ↑ Latin stāre to "estar" in the meanings: to be in a state, to stand, stand, stand around, stand still, hesitate
  41. ↑ Latin sedēre for “ser” in the meanings: linger, linger, sit idle, live quietly, live withdrawn
  42. ↑ Birte Stengaard: Vida y Muerte de un Campo Semántico: Un estudio de la evolución semántica de los verbos latinos "stare", "sedere" e "iacere" del latín al romance del s. XIII. Max Niemeyer, imprint by de Gruyter 1991, ISBN 3-484-52234-8 , p. 93.
  43. ↑ in relation to Proto-Indo-European (PIE) * stand2-
  44. ↑ Montserrat Batllori, Francesc Roca: Grammaticalization of, ser 'and, estar' in Romance. In: Dianne Jonas, John Whitman, Andrew Garrett: Grammatical Change: Origins, Nature, Outcomes. (= Oxford linguistics). Oxford University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-958262-4 , pp. 74 f.
  45. ↑ in relation to Proto-Indo-European (PIE) * sed- , (see also Ur-Indo-European copula )
  46. ↑ Christine Tschoepe: SER and ESTAR Investigation of some common explanatory models for differentiating uses. Term paper (advanced seminar: Problems of the grammar of Spanish), Grin-Verlag, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-638-94563-9 .
  47. ↑ Reyes Llopis-García; Juan Manuel Real Espinosa; José Plácido Ruiz Campillo: Qué gramática enseñar, qué gramática aprender. Edi numen, Madrid 2012, ISBN 978-84-9848-240-9 , pp. 124-137.
  48. ↑ Claudi Maienborn: A discourse-based account of Spanish ser / estar. In: Linguistics. 43/1, 2005, pp. 155-180.
  49. ^ Holger Siever: Translate Spanish into German. A work book. Narr study books, Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-8233-6391-0 , p. 22.
  50. ↑ compare engl. "To be" and "become / will", fr. "Être" and "devenir"
  51. ↑ Eva-Maria Remberger, Kay-Eduardo González-Vilbazo: The copula in Romansh. Pp. 1-27.
  52. ^ Johan Falk: Difusión de estar con adjetivos de sentido transitorio en catalán. In: Lars Lindvall (ed.): Actes du Dixiéme Congrés des Romanistes Scandinaves. Lund University Press, Lund 1990, pp. 140-150.
  53. ^ Yolanda Carballera Cotillas, María Angeles Sastre Ruano: Uso de ser y estar. Revisión de la gramática y constatación de la realidad lingüística. Pp. 299-313.
  54. ↑ Manuel Leonetti: Ser y estar: estado de la cuestión. ( Memento of the original from August 16, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, pp. 182-205. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / dspace.uah.es
  55. ↑ For Ser : carácter, caracteristica, características permanentes, clase, color, descripción, evento, fechas, forma, frases impersonales, identidad, marca, origen, ocupación, profesión, pertenencia, precios en general, procedencia, relaciones, sucesos sociales. A motto in English: doctor für d ate, o ccupation, c haracteristics, t ime, o rigin, r elation. So facts or actions, i. w. S. without time value . For estar : acción, cambio de estado, condición, emoción, estado (estado de salud, estado de ánimo), localización, posición, precios fluctuantes. The corresponding Merkspruch in English is: place for p osition, l ocation, a ction, c ondition, e motion. So facts with temporary value.
  56. ↑ Claudia Moriena, Karen Genschow: Great learning grammar Spanish: rules, examples of use, tests; [Level A1 - C1]. Hueber Verlag, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-19-104145-8 , p. 520.
  57. ^ Yuko Morimoto, Victoria Pavón Lucero: Los verbos pseudo-copulativos de cambio en los diccionarios didácticos del espaňol. In: Yuko Morimoto, Victoria Pavón Lucero: Los verbos pseudo-copulativos del español. (= Cuadernos de lengua española. Volume 96). La Muralla, Arco Libros, 2007, ISBN 978-84-7635-699-9 , pp. 273-285.
  58. ↑ Gerd Hochländer: Interference errors and contrastive language teaching - with examples from grammar. Pp. 1-12.
  59. ↑ Carolina Holtheuer: The distribution of ser and estar with adjectives: A critical survey. In: Rev. signos. [on-line]. vol. 44, n.75, 2011, pp. 33-47. ISSN  0718-0934
  60. ↑ Eva-Maria Remberger, Kay-Eduardo González-Vilbazo: The copula in Romansh. In: Ljudmila Geist, Björn Rothstein (Hrsg.): Copula verbs and copula sentences: intersinguistic and intralinguistic aspects. (= Linguistic Works. Volume 512). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-484-30512-0 , pp. 201-227.
  61. ↑ Joseph Charanza: Theoretical-practical Spanish language teaching. Critical edit for self-teaching. Peter Rohnmann, Vienna 1839, p. 80.
  62. ↑ Compare this to the Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegelian concept of “being for oneself” “ser para sí”, “reality (actus, energeia)” Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: Lectures on the history of philosophy. a. The concept of development.
  63. ↑ Compare this to the Hegelian concept of “being-in-itself”, “ser-en-sí”, as an investment and ability “as I call it (potentia, dynamis)”. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel : Lectures on the history of philosophy. a. The concept of development.
  64. ↑ Thomas Scholz: The Ranschburg phenomenon or: Why we cannot teach “ser” and “estar”. In: Hispanorama. 124, 2009, p. 43.
  65. ↑ Antonio Vañó-Cerdá : Ser y estar + adjetivos: un estudio y sincrónico diacrónico. (= Tübingen Contributions to Linguistics. Volume 201). Gunter Narr Verlag, Tübingen 1982, ISBN 3-87808-579-6 . Antonio Vañó-Cerdá uses the terms “intrinsity” and “extrinsity” to explain the copula verbs “ser” and “esta”.
  66. ↑ In Spanish keywords for Estar : localización, estado, posición, acción, condición, emoción, cambio de estado, estado de salud, estado de ánimo, precios fluctuantes
  67. ^ Justo Fernández López: Ser y estar. Origen y evolución histórica. Hispanoteca.eu
  68. ↑ Alexia Steinhauser: Ser and Estar easily explained. Rule, examples and exercises with solutions. Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2012, ISBN 978-3-8423-5512-5 .
  69. ↑ Hortensia Martínez: Construir bien en español. La corrección sintáctica. Ediciones Nobel, Oviedo 2005, ISBN 3-89657-775-1 , pp. 95-97.
  70. ↑ In Spanish keywords for Ser : descripción, ocupación, característica, tiempo, origen, relación, pertenecia, características permanentes, material, evento, fechas, relaciones personales, profesión, marca, color, clase, identidad, suceso social, carácter, procedencia frases impersonales, precios en general
  71. ^ Julián Martínez Vázquez: Gramática Pedagógica. Esquemas Semicopulativos Aspectuales de Cambio Episódico en Producciones de Alumnos de ELSE http://p3.usal.edu.ar/index.php/gramma/article/view/793/922
  72. ↑ Verbos semipredicativos o semicopulativos
  73. ↑ Rafael López-Campos Bodineau: Constantes sintácticas en torno a los mecanismos de modalidad y pseudomodalidad de la lengua alemana. Una categorización de su corus verbal. In: Anuario de Estudios Filológicos. vol. XXXIV, 2011, pp. 67-76, ISSN  0210-8178
  74. ^ Josse de Kock: Gramática española: enseñanza e investigación. (= Acta Salmanticensia: enseñanza e investigación: Gramática española. Volume 3). Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca 1990, p. 125 f.
  75. ↑ Classification of perífrasis verbales according to the aspect. Pperífrasis verbales - Lista. P. 3, hispanoteca.eu
  76. ↑ Johannes Dölling: Temporal and modal meaning. Semantics and pragmatics. Institute of Linguistics, University of Leipzig
  77. ↑ Maria António Hörster, Francisca Athayde, Judite Carecho: So it must have been / Deve ter sido assim. Epistemic must and its translation possibilities into Portuguese. In: Revista de Estudos Alemães. nº4 Julho de 2013, pp. 131–151, ISSN  1647-8061
  78. ↑ Adverbios_de_modo Adverbios de modo. Wikilengua.org
  79. ↑ Also: " Judgment adverbs", "Commentary adverbs", "Commentary adverbs", The sentence adverb ( Canonet )
  80. ↑ Diego Gabriel Krivochen: Los verbos de ascenso como expresiones modales: El caso del español. Anuari de Filologia. Estudis de Lingüística (Anu.Filol.Est.Lingüíst.) 3/2013, pp. 33-56 , ISSN  2014-1408
  81. ^ Alberto Hernández: Modos gramaticales y modalidad: planteamiento pragmalingüístico. In: Lexis. Vol. 5, No. 1 1981, pp. 9-20.
  82. ^ Jürgen Schmidt-Radefeldt: Portuguese Linguistics. (= Tübingen contributions to linguistics. Volume 212). Volume 1, Gunter Narr Verlag, Tübingen 1983, ISBN 3-87808-212-6 , p. 213.
  83. ↑ In the case of the deontic modality, an external authoritative authority (persons, a code, ethical norms, etc.) acting from the speaker determines the possibility or necessity of an action.
  84. ↑ The epistemic modality refers to the subjective assessment of the proposition by the speaker.
  85. ^ Gesina Volkmann: World view and language. Epistemic relativization using the example of Spanish. Narr Francke Attempto, Tübingen 2005, ISBN 3-8233-6101-5 , p. 66.
  86. ↑ Johannes Dölling: Formal Semantics. Institute of Linguistics, University of Leipzig
  87. ↑ Klaus Dieter Baumann, Hartwig Kalverkämper: Theory and Practice of Interpreting and Translating in Technical Contexts. (= Transüd work on the theory and practice of translation and interpreting. Volume 63). Frank & Timme, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-7329-0016-9 , pp. 199 f.
  88. ^ Bert Cornillie: Evidentiality and Epistemic Modality in Spanish (Semi-) Auxiliaries: A Cognitive-functional Approach (Applications of Cognitive Linguistics). De Gruyter Mouton, New York / Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-018611-6 .
  89. ↑ Irene Doval Reixa: The means of expression of the modality in German and Spanish from a contrasting point of view. In: Moenia. 5, 1999, pp. 397-412.
  90. ^ Hans-Georg Beckmann: New Spanish grammar. dnf-Verlag, Göttingen 1994, ISBN 3-9803483-3-4 , p. 158.
  91. ↑ Justo Fernández López: Modal Verbs German-Spanish Overview. Hispanoteca.eu
  92. ↑ modal verbs. The modal verbs Los verbos modales. Overview. Hispanoteca.eu
  93. ↑ Josef Hamacher: On the translation of the German modal verbs into Spanish. In: Living Language. 24, 1979, pp. 32-34.
  94. ↑ Justo Fernández López: The German Modal Verbs - Los verbos modales alemanes. hispanoteca.eu
  95. ↑ Richard Groß: On the translation of the German modal verbs into Spanish and Catalan, illustrated using the example of "shall". In: Peter Cichon, Anke Gladischefski, Karl Ille, Georg Kremnitz, Jacques Souy, Robert Tanzmeister (eds.): TOPIC Language Policy in Romania. QUOVADIS ROMANIA? Journal for a current Romance studies, Vienna, number 10/1997, ISSN  1022-3169 , pp. 89–109.
  96. ^ Roberto Ibañez: Negation in Spanish. (= Structura series of publications on linguistics. Volume 5). Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Munich 1972, p. 10.
  97. ↑ direct object, accusative in the case terminology
  98. ↑ indirect object, dative in the case terminology