Psychoanalysis and ethics

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Psychoanalysis and Ethics (original Man for Himself. An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics ) is a book that Erich Fromm published in 1947.

In the script, Fromm tries to present a humanistic ethic and its connection with an image of the “nature of man”. Selected problems of humanistic ethics are also worked out in it. In addition, he describes in detail the status of his character theory at that time.

content

construction

The book is divided into five parts:

  1. The question
  2. Humanistic ethics as an applied science of the art of living
  3. Human nature and character
  4. Problems of humanistic ethics
  5. The ethical problem of the present

introduction

In the preface and in the first two chapters, Fromm describes the purpose of his investigation in more detail. He regards psychoanalysis and ethics as a supplement to his previous book The Fear of Freedom (original: Escape from Freedom ).

He criticizes the tendency of psychology to relativism . He writes that the "separation of psychology and ethics [...] is comparatively young", since all "great humanistic ethicists of the past, on whose works this book is based, [...] were both philosophers and psychologists". Fromm's point of view is that psychology can serve as a basis for establishing objective and valid norms of conduct.

Fromm refers to the "ideas of the Enlightenment ", which earlier led people to trust their own reason (" sapere aude "). However, “growing doubts about reason and autonomy” would have created a “state of moral confusion” and thus a value relativism.

In the last paragraph of the first chapter, The Question, Fromm describes the goals of the entire book:

“I wrote this book with the intention of reaffirming the validity of humanistic ethics by showing that our knowledge of human nature does not lead to ethical relativism but, on the contrary, to the conviction that the sources of the Norms for a moral way of life can be found in the nature of man himself. I am trying to show that ethical norms are based on qualities that are inherent in human beings and that their violation leads to psychological and emotional disintegration. I will try to show that the character structure of the mature and integrated personality is the productive character, the origin and basis of "virtue" and that "vice" is ultimately indifference to oneself and therefore self-mutilation. [...] If man is to have confidence in values, then he must know himself and his nature's capacity for good and productivity. "

- Section 1: The question

It should be emphasized that Fromm's investigation takes a psychoanalytic standpoint, but in the sense of a further development of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis . The proximity to positions of Harry Stack Sullivan (see neo-psychoanalysis and analytical social psychology ) is also mentioned later .

Humanistic ethics

In the section Humanistic Ethics as an Applied Science of the Art of Living , the author presents his arguments in more detail. The humanistic ethics are opposed to the so-called “authoritarian ethics”. In the latter system, an authority determines what is good for people and establishes the laws and norms of conduct. In humanistic ethics, people give themselves the norms. Fromm also differentiates these two types of ethics according to formal and material aspects.

The view of humanistic ethics is that man himself can determine the criteria for “virtue and sin”. According to Fromm, the only criterion for an ethical value judgment is human wellbeing. The humanistic ethics is accordingly anthropocentric , i. H. human existence is considered most important. Fromm clearly differentiates this from “isolationist egoism ”, since “fulfillment and happiness can only be found in relation to other people and in solidarity with them”.

Fromm shows that values ​​that are defined as something "somehow desired good" have no objective validity. The things that are experienced as pleasurable depend on the personality structure (here: the character structure).

Fromm is convinced that "to find behavioral norms and value judgments which are valid for all people and which are nevertheless set up by the person himself and not by an authority transcending him". He warns that “objectively valid” is not the same as “absolutely”. The latter term has its roots in theology . Fromm sees the lifestyle as a kind of "art". Belonging to all arts is “a system of objectively valid norms [as] the theoretical basis for practice (of applied science). This system, in turn, is based on the theoretical sciences. ”The norms are“ by no means arbitrary ”and“ [i] your disregard shows poor results or even an absolute failure on the way to the desired goal. ”The humanistic ethics is, it is said, "The applied science of the 'art of life'". It is based on the "science of man".

The object of the science of man is human nature. One cannot “consider human nature as such, but only its specific manifestations in specific situations.” Here it is assumed that human nature is a theoretical construction, the information of which comes from empiricism.

Fromm also establishes the connection between humanistic ethics and previous thinkers. He shows that such ethics and views already existed in Aristotle (cf. Nicomachean Ethics ), Baruch de Spinoza and John Dewey .

He states that a humanistic ethic can also be built with the help of psychoanalysis. According to Fromm, psychoanalysis has as its subject the entire personality of the human being. With it it is possible to “explore the personality as a whole.” In particular, the unconscious parts of the psyche and the motifs associated with it are only accessible through this.

Fromm also considers the character theory derived from psychoanalysis to be necessary:

“Although psychoanalytic characterology is still in its infancy, it is essential for the development of an ethical theory. The definition of all virtues and vices must remain ambiguous in traditional ethics, because the same expression is often used to denote different, and sometimes even contradicting, human attitudes. These terms lose their ambiguity only when they are brought into connection with the character structure of the person to whom a virtue or a vice is ascribed. [...] Far more than individual virtues or vices, the virtuous or vicious character is the actual subject of ethical research. "

- Section 2: Humanistic Ethics

Fromm also refers to Sigmund Freud's non-relativistic views.

Human nature and character theory

Fromm presents his character theory in detail here. He shows the different orientations that make up the entire character of a person. A distinction is made here between productive and non-productive character orientations. Fromm expressly emphasizes that he differentiates between character and temperament (cf. the theory of temperament according to Hippocrates of Kos ).

He goes into detail on the non-productive character orientations:

  • The receptive orientation
  • The exploitative orientation
  • The hoarding orientation
  • The marketing orientation

The opposing productive character orientations are then explained in detail.

Problems of humanistic ethics

Fromm discusses the terms selfishness , self-love and self-interest , including the views of Johannes Calvin , Immanuel Kant , Sigmund Freud and others. Fromm concludes that love for one's own person is inextricably linked with love for every other person. For this reason, selfishness ( narcissism ) and self-love are not identical, but in reality opposites. Fromm describes self- interest as an expression of a deep self-knowledge “interests [of the true self”).

Furthermore, the conscience is subjected to a closer examination. The author differentiates between the authoritarian and the humanistic conscience. Roughly speaking, the authoritarian conscience is “the voice of an inwardly displaced external authority”. It is a reward-punish ethic that involves fear of punishment instead of real guilt . Due to the dependence on authorities (and their internalization ), there is a lack of real self-made value judgments. The aim of the authoritarian conscience is to please the (external) authority as much as possible and to avoid displeasure. This form of conscience has a destructive effect on oneself.

In contrast to this, the humanistic conscience is one's own voice, which is present independently of external influences. According to Fromm, it is the “reaction of [the] total personality to its correct or disturbed functioning.” That includes both the mind and the affects . The humanistic conscience urges people to realize their entire personality. The author also discusses the difficulty of perceiving the mostly only quiet, indirectly perceptible inner voice without falling for psychological effects such as repression , rationalization or the like. Fromm also makes connections to psychosomatics .

Everyone has both forms of conscience.

Fromm also differentiates between pleasure and happiness in the thematic complex . It clearly distinguishes itself from the subjective pleasure principle of hedonism . He discusses the views of Plato , Aristotle , Spinoza and Spencer on this subject. The subjective experience of pleasure is “not in itself a sufficient standard of value”, “happiness and the good” are related to one another and an “objective criterion for determining the value of pleasure” is possible. Fromm also distinguishes himself from masochism and neuroses .

“[...] Happiness and unhappiness are more than just a state of mind. Happiness and unhappiness actually express the constitution of the whole organism, the whole personality. Happiness is associated with an increase in vitality, in the intensity of feeling and thinking, and in productivity. Unhappiness means a decrease in these skills and functions. Happiness and unhappiness are so much a state of our overall personality that physical reactions often reveal more about them than conscious feelings. "

- About luck and bad luck

In the course of the chapter, Fromm also presents his (non-religious) term “ faith ” and his humanistic image of man , in each case in contrast to other views. The ethical problem of freedom versus determinism becomes more understandable through the concept of character, since the motives of respective personality can be better understood. Objective and neutral views would be possible.

At the end of the chapter, the author explains the contrast between absolute and relative ethics and universal ethics that are intrinsic to society. His concept of the social character that is specific to a group or society is explained here.

Universal and societal ethics are different. Fromm writes about universal ethics:

“An example of universal ethics can be found in norms such as 'love your neighbor as yourself' or 'you should not kill'. In fact, the ethical systems of all great cultures show an astonishing similarity in everything that is considered necessary for human development, i.e. those norms that result from human nature and the conditions necessary for its growth. "

- About "universal ethics"

The ethics inherent in society, on the other hand, serve to keep a special society going. Some societies can be organized in such a way that contradictions with universal principles arise (e.g. authoritarian dictatorships ).

context

Fromm's character theory maintains compatibility with Sigmund Freud's character types. For similarities and differences, see the article Character Orientations .

The first approaches to later concepts from Fromm appear in the text Psychoanalysis and Ethics . For example, the contradiction between " reactive [m], rational [n] hatred" versus "character-related" or irrational hatred will later reappear in the anatomy of human destructiveness as "benign" and "malicious" aggression, where it will be further empirically substantiated.

Fromm developed his models even further in the later writings. The terms biophilia and necrophilia can be cited as examples of new approaches . A new type of character, which Fromm calls “monocerebral” or “cybernetic character”, is only explained in later writings (including in the anatomy of human destructiveness and having or being ).

Even Alfred Adler had among other things, his work people skills made as a kind of "science of man".

literature

  • Erich Fromm: Psychoanalysis and Ethics. Building blocks for a humanistic characterology 1947. In: Rainer Funk (Hrsg.): Erich Fromm complete edition in 12 volumes. Volume II: Analytical Character Theory. Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-423-59043-2 , pp. 1–154.
  • Alfred Adler : Knowledge of human nature . London 1927. (Reprint: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1972, ISBN 3-436-00717-X )

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Fromm, p. 3 ( preface )
  2. ↑ Fromm, p. 4 ( foreword )
  3. ↑ Fromm, pp. 6–9 ( The question )
  4. ↑ Fromm, pp. 6–9 ( The question )
  5. ↑ Fromm, p. 9 ( The question )
  6. ↑ Fromm, pp. 10–28 ( Humanistic ethics [...] , esp. A) Humanistic ethics as opposed to authoritarian ethics )
  7. ↑ Fromm, pp. 10–28 ( Humanistic ethics [...] , esp. A) Humanistic ethics as opposed to authoritarian ethics )
  8. ↑ Fromm, pp. 10–28 ( Humanistic ethics [...] , especially a) [...] and b) Subjectivistic ethics as opposed to objectivistic ethics )
  9. ↑ Fromm, pp. 10–28 ( Humanist ethics [...] , especially b) Subjectivist ethics as opposed to objectivist ethics )
  10. ↑ Fromm, pp. 10–28 ( Humanistic Ethics [...] , esp. C) The Science of Man )
  11. ↑ Fromm, pp. 10–28 ( Humanistic Ethics [...] , esp. C) The tradition of humanistic ethics )
  12. ↑ Fromm, pp. 24–28 ( Humanistic Ethics [...] , esp. C) Ethics and Psychoanalysis )
  13. ↑ Fromm, p. 25f ( Humanistic Ethics [...] , d) Ethics and Psychoanalysis , in the original italics)
  14. ↑ Fromm refers to this (in his work on p. 27) to: Sigmund Freud: New series of lectures for the introduction to psychoanalysis. London 1933, Chapter 7: "About a Weltanschauung"
  15. ↑ Fromm, pp. 29-77 ( The nature of man and his character )
  16. ↑ Fromm, p. 29-77 ( Humanist Ethics [...] , especially p. 44ff: The non-productive character orientations )
  17. ↑ Fromm, pp. 78–91 ( Problems of humanistic ethics , especially p. 78ff: a) Selfishness, self-love, self-interest )
  18. ↑ Fromm, pp. 78–91 ( a) Selfishness, Self Love, Self Interest. P. 90, original in italics)
  19. ↑ Fromm, pp. 93-101 ( 1) The authoritarian conscience )
  20. ↑ Fromm, pp. 101-105 ( 2) The humanistic conscience )
  21. ↑ Fromm, pp. 105-109 ( 2) The humanistic conscience )
  22. ↑ Fromm, p. 110 ( c) Lust und Glück , literal quotations from the list on p. 113.)
  23. ↑ Fromm, p. 115 ( c) Lust und Glück )
  24. ↑ Fromm, pp. 125-133 ( d) Faith as a character trait )
  25. ↑ Fromm, pp. 133–149 ( e) The moral forces in man )
  26. ↑ Fromm, pp. 145–149 ( 3rd character and moral assessment )
  27. ↑ Fromm, pp. 149–153 ( f) absolute ethics in contrast to relative ethics, universal ethics in contrast to ethics immanent in society )
  28. ↑ Fromm, p. 151 ( f) Absolute ethics in contrast [...] )
  29. ↑ Fromm, pp. 151–153 ( f) Absolute ethics in contrast [...] )
  30. ↑ Fromm, p. 135ff ( e) The moral forces in humans , in the original italics)
  31. ↑ Adler, esp. P. 250 ( closing words ): "With these investigations we are promoting human knowledge, a science that is hardly otherwise cultivated [...]"