Barbed Wire

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Rusted barbed wire
Barbed wire on a West German postage stamp from 1953 commemorating German prisoners of war

Barbed wire usually consists of two twisted wires on which two wires with radially protruding ends with a few turns have been wound at regular intervals. The protruding wire ends have sharp burrs . Barbed wire is stretched or rolled out and used as an obstacle to prevent animals or people from entering or leaving certain areas.

The development of the barbed wire took place in the second half of the 19th century, when it became important for cattle breeders to protect their pastureland due to changed economic conditions. Barbed wire found worldwide use within a few decades. The first military applications took place in the Second Boer War , when the English wanted to protect their military bases from attacks with barbed wire. Barbed wire was also used in the Russo-Japanese War , but without realizing the effects on future warfare. The trench warfare of World War I would not have been possible without barbed wire barriers.

Barbed wire was and is used as a barrier against people at the external EU border , in prisons , concentration camps , on the Berlin Wall and the inner-German border . He is therefore a symbol of oppression and lack of freedom, and is used for example in the logo of Amnesty International or the Open Doors .

origin

Changes in US cattle farming

Course of the Great Plains
The red line is the 100th degree of longitude.

Cattle rearing in Texas in the mid-1860s was based on taking advantage of the special conditions of the Great Plains and the natural herd behavior of cattle. The large bison herds were exterminated by this time and the plains Indians were interned in reservations. This gave Texas ranchers the opportunity to graze on the Great Plains Longhorn cattle , taking advantage of the Great Plains that stretched from the southern United States up to the Canadian border. The economic value of the Longhorn cattle, a breed that arose from feral Spanish domestic cattle, was that they were able to support themselves even under the difficult conditions of the Plains. The work of the ranchers was limited to driving these herds of cattle slowly north, where they were then killed in the slaughterhouses of Chicago. Although this form of cattle farming forced Texan ranchers to lead a semi-nomadic life, very few cowboys were necessary to drive large herds north. This was possible because the cattle found their feed in the predominantly arid plains only in river valleys, which only made up seven percent of this land area, and it was part of the natural behavior of the cattle to stay close together in herds. This form of cattle husbandry required open, unlimited areas. The ranchers' competition for pasture was initially reduced by agreeing on which side of the river they drove their respective herds.

The success of this form of land use, however, also harbored the seeds of its own demise. The inhospitable Great Plains were initially only of economic interest to cattle owners. The comparatively low yield that could be achieved with cattle driven north was still sufficient, however, to lead to an expansion of railway lines and the establishment of new cities in the northern area of ​​the Great Plains. These investments increased the value of the land and created increasing competition for land. At the same time, the number of cattle being herded north increased and the more fertile areas of the Great Plains were used for agriculture. As early as the late 1860s, ranchers were forced to bring land under their control to ensure adequate feed for their herds. There were three interest groups who wanted to limit access to their respective countries:

  • Farmers who had to protect their fields from cattle foraging for food
  • Railway companies that had to prevent herds of cattle from blocking their railways and ultimately
  • Cattle breeders who had to protect their pastures.

This problem wasn't new. In wooded Europe and Northeast America, fields and pastures were bordered by stone walls, wooden fences and hedges. These traditional materials were lacking in and along the Great Plains. The milk orange tree was the only plant suitable for hedge planting in the Great Plains. However, hedges made of milk orange trees could not be moved, cast shadows on the few really fertile soils, reduced their yield and also required space. In addition, they grew much too slowly for the form of land colonization that took place at breakneck speed in the Midwest in the second half of the 19th century: A milk orange tree hedge had to grow for at least four years before it could seek shelter from foraging Cattle bot. But four years also corresponded to the period in which Abilene in the US state of Kansas rose to a center of the cattle trade and lost this influential position again.

Patents

Advertisement for barbed wire in a Texan newspaper (1874)
Chicken wire was patented before barbed wire

The development of barbed wire, which began around 1870, coincides with a period when a number of organic materials were being replaced by iron and steel products. Samuel Fox developed the first wire frames for umbrellas in 1852, which until then had been made in Europe from wood or whale beard . In the same way, the manufacture of corsets was changed. In musical instruments, strings were increasingly made of steel rather than sheep intestines. The use of iron instead of hemp for ropes began in 1840, and soon after that machines were developed that could twist several iron wires into stable ropes. First chain link fences were also made in the 1840s, but were still too fragile by the late 1850s to be a serious barrier to a cattle. The need for stable, cheap boundaries and the new technological requirements led to several inventors in the USA working independently and inspired by one another on spiked iron ropes. Inspired by spurs worn by riders, for example, William D. Hunt patented wires with spur wheels wound onto them in 1867. Michael Kelly patented wires with nails driven into them in 1868. Both inventions had the disadvantage, however, that they did not inflict sufficient pain on robust animals such as cattle to prevent them from breaking through the fence. Finally, in 1873, Henry Rose developed a fence consisting of wires and wooden parts that were provided with sharp spikes and were defensive enough to prevent cattle from breaking through. He created this precursor of barbed wire, he had to buy the patent, in the same year at a fair in DeKalb in the US state of Illinois before where Joseph F. Glidden saw this construction. Inspired by Rose's patent, Glidden developed a wire in which two tension wires were stranded together and spikes were inserted by winding a pointed wire around one of the two wires at regular intervals and then cutting it at an angle. The two twisted tension wires fixed the stinger, which could not twist under the weight of an animal leaning against it. Glidden applied for his patent on October 27, 1873. Glidden wasn't the only one developing Rose's idea. Five more patents for barbed wire production were registered as a result of the DeKalb exhibition.

Usage in the United States and its implications

Barbed wire in the Great Plains
Cowboys at the XIT Ranch in Texas in 1891

Gliddens patent was based on the manufacture of tension wires that had been in use for years. He was marketing barbed wire as early as 1875, advertising that 1,000 farmers had already tried it - probably an exaggeration at the time. In 1876, Massachusetts-based iron and steel maker Washburn and Moen acquired half of a competing patent and began mass producing barbed wire. The marketing opportunities were not limited to the Great Plains in the American Midwest. In other parts of the country, too, erecting a barbed wire fence was cheaper than, for example, a traditional wooden fence. Fewer stakes were required, fewer nails, and the work required to erect a barbed wire was, according to an advertising leaflet by Washburn and Moen from 1880, only a fifth of that of a wooden fence. However, wood was still necessary, and the rapidly increasing use of barbed wire in the Midwest meant that wood imports actually increased there, as areas were now fenced off that had previously been uneconomical. In 1874, the first year of industrial production, barbed wire weighing 5 tons was produced, in 1878 that figure exceeded 10,000 tons, and in 1880, barely more than six years after the first patent was granted, the total length of the barbed wire fences erected in the United States was based on the weight of the barbed wire produced up to then estimated, a good 50,000 miles. In 1883, 100,000 tons of barbed wire were already being produced, and with this rapid increase in production, the price of barbed wire also steadily decreased. At the end of the 19th century, the patents expired, which led to a further price reduction, but at the same time also led to new manufacturing methods that made even more cost-effective production possible. Increasingly, steel was also used instead of iron, which was more expensive than iron per tonne of weight, but also more resistant, and thus allowed thinner wires than iron, so that steel barbed wire was ultimately cheaper than iron wire.

The use of barbed wire, which was rapidly gaining ground, was not without its effects. The large cattle breeders in particular secured grazing land for their cattle herds through extensive fencing. The XIT Ranch alone had already legally fenced off 476,000 acres for its 50,000 cattle in 1885. For the same year it is estimated that nearly 4.5 million acres were illegally fenced off with barbed wire. In a region that stretched from Texas to Montana, a land battle began, with smaller cattle farmers in particular among the losers. With less capital than the large ranches that were often backed by financiers from the eastern United States, they were not as capable of legally or illegally fencing in land. In order to still secure pasture for their cattle, they often went over to cutting the wires, which was punished by the large cattle breeders with the help of paid snipers.

The fences also hindered the natural migration of the semi-wild Longhorn cattle , which had previously migrated to the warmer south at the beginning of winter. From the early 1880s onwards, pastureland was so valuable there that ranchers no longer wanted to tolerate foreign cattle. In a poorly coordinated effort, they erected fences across the Texas Panhandle to protect their land. As a result, thousands of longhorns perished on the barbed wire fences in the severe winters of 1885/1886 and 1886/1887 when they could no longer avoid the winter blizzards.

Worldwide use

Industrial plant from Felten & Guilleaume , which started producing barbed wire in 1884
Barbed wire in New South Wales, Australia: A grasshopper of the Australian species Gastrimargus musicus that has got caught in the barbed wire

Washburn and Moen , the iron and steel producers who started producing barbed wire in 1876, had agents in South America as early as 1877 trying to sell this product there. The first barbed wire fence outside the United States was believed to have been erected in the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Gardens in December 1877. But barbed wire was also used very quickly elsewhere - there was extensive fenced-off land in Argentina as early as 1880, as the Argentine pampas offered similar conditions to the Great Plains. By 1880, Washburn and Moen representatives were already active in Australia, New Zealand, Cuba, Ceylon and Russia. In 1884 Washburn and Moen began working with the German company Felten & Guilleaume in Europe . Felten & Guillaume committed to produce up to 1,000 tons annually in the USA, but to sell this outside of North America. In Europe, their production was unlimited. However, they pledged to pay Washburn and Moen $ 2 for every ton of barbed wire they sold in the UK and $ 1 for every ton of barbed wire they sold in other countries. Exceptions to this rule were Germany and France, where they were allowed to sell up to 250,000 tons without having to pay any compensation to Washburn and Moen .

Felton & Guilleaume was by no means Washburn and Moen's most important partner. The British company Johnson and Nephew was one of the largest barbed wire manufacturers in the world in the last decade of the 19th century, as it benefited, among other things, from trade relations within the British Empire . Australia and New Zealand, both part of the British Empire, are among the areas where barbed wire has had a profound impact on the domestic economy. In both countries the economic focus was on sheep breeding for the export of wool, and the development of barbed wire made it possible to increasingly abandon the expensive work of shepherds. In New South Wales , Australia , the number of sheep kept increased from 6 million in 1861 to 57 million in 1894, partly due to the introduction of barbed wire. Barbed wire also changed the balance of power in South Africa, where white farmers are increasingly fencing in their valuable pastureland, protecting them from both wildlife and cattle from the country's indigenous peoples. As a result of this development, blacks were increasingly displaced onto marginal land. This was insignificant as long as there was sufficient rain, but it caused them to lose their livestock in greater numbers in dry years. More and more blacks were being forced to make a living as white farm workers.

“A new way of bringing land under control not only changed the relationship between humans and animals, but also between different ethnic groups - their different access to a new technology with which land could be brought under control had a major influence. "

Barbed wire and war

Use in the Boer War

Burish women and children in a British concentration camp during the Second Boer War

The barbed wire saw its first military use in 1899 in the Boer War , a conflict between Great Britain and the Boer Republics of Orange Free State and the South African Republic ( Transvaal ) that lasted from 1899 to 1902 and ended with their integration into the British Empire . It is one of the colonial wars, but differs from a typical colonial war because both parties to the conflict had similar weapons and similar military tactics.

In the course of this war, the Boers went from a more conventional warfare, in which large troops faced each other, to a guerrilla war that was extremely costly for the British . In small squads they carried out surprise attacks - mostly on the communications links, supply and transport routes of the British - and then quickly withdrew. To restrict the Boers' freedom of movement, the British troops under General Lord Kitchener used barbed wire, among other things. First along the railway lines and then across the whole country, they built a system of log houses that were occupied by small garrisons. Barbed wire walls not only protected the immediate vicinity of these log houses and the railway lines, but also extended to the next log house, which at the height of the Boer War was no more than half a mile away. As long as it was light it was impossible for the Boers to cut through these walls, as they were a static target for the guns of the garrisons of both log houses. Bells, which were hung in the barbed wire fences, made no night attempts to cut through the walls. A total of 8,000 log houses and 3,700 miles of barbed wire walls were built by the British during the Boer War. The cost of this system, with which the British finally brought the Veld under their control, amounted to 300,000 British pounds, only a fraction of the total British war costs of more than 200 million British pounds. Baden Baden-Powell , one of the British officers participating in the Second Boer War, stated as early as 1903, shortly after the end of the conflict:

"Barbed wire can be seen as a significant development in modern warfare, and it is very likely that it will be used extensively in future wars."

Barbed wire in the Russo-Japanese War

Trenches in the Russo-Japanese War: Increasingly they were protected from being overrun by enemy forces with barbed wire

In contrast to the Second Boer War, the Russo-Japanese War is one of the conventional military conflicts: Two similarly equipped armies, operating on the model of Western military, faced each other. The conflict began in February 1904 with the Japanese attack on the port of Port Arthur and, after a series of costly battles, ended in the fall of 1905 with the defeat of the Russian side. Most of the land battles were fought in the vastness of Manchuria . In this conflict, in which cavalry played an even greater role, traditional field fortifications such as stakes driven into the ground and pits that cannot be negotiated by the cavalry were used. For the first time, however, these were generally supplemented with barbed wire. Trenches that were reinforced with barbed wire were also used in this war. Unlike in the First War, these trenches were comparatively short and their purpose was usually limited to protecting a single machine gun from being overrun by enemy forces. The barbed wire barrier that lay in front of these trenches usually consisted of three individual barbed wires stretched a short distance apart. The entire barbed wire barn was no higher than a meter. Both Japanese and Russians allowed their friendly powers to send military observers into the battles of this conflict, and so a number of military observers had the opportunity to observe the effectiveness of these barbed wire barriers. Among other things, they witnessed the cost of an infantry attack on such barbed wire-armored machine gun nests - in a Japanese attack, 28 of 50 attackers lost their lives or were wounded. The military observers quickly agreed that such attacks could no longer be successful, but they all failed to recognize that the use of barbed wire would fundamentally change future wars and, above all, that the times of fast and decisive cavalry attacks were over.

Barbed wire in the First World War

Increasing insignificance of the cavalry

The Prussian 7th Cuirassier Regiment attacks the French positions in the Battle of Mars-la-Tour on August 16, 1870 . Contemporary illustration from Canadian Illustrated News , November 19, 1870, vol. II, no.21, 336.

In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/1871, cavalry was no longer decisive for the war. The European cultural landscape had already changed too much to use cavalry effectively. The increasing limitation of land - at the time of the dispute between France on the one hand and the North German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia and the southern German states of Bavaria , Württemberg , Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt allied with it, on the other hand still predominantly consisting of traditional materials such as wooden fences and hedges - made it increasingly difficult to use the cavalry in a decisive way.

“The division of surfaces by wires is increasing massively. ... a few wires or a bit of difficult ground slows a mounted attack enough for the rifle to do its deadly work. "

held Lord Dundonald , who served as a general in the Second Boer War.

To be effective, cavalry needed vast, unlimited space with few obstacles. While a single horse can develop its full speed almost instantly, a cavalry unit needed a canter of at least three kilometers to develop full speed together. Once it was reached, a cavalry galloping up was no easy target for opposing rifle shooters, as the experiences in the Second Boer War showed, where machine guns were still a rarity. All the great battles of the past, in which the cavalry played a decisive role, therefore took place in a wide open field, which allowed a cavalry unit to gallop up. The historian Reviel Netz therefore points out that it was not only the development of the machine gun, but also the change in the landscape due to the increasing use of barbed wire that made the cavalry obsolete.

The trench warfare of the First World War

In World War I , this development culminated. The cavalry had lost its decisive role in the war both as a decisive part of the army and as a mobile unit that could be quickly relocated. This was already noticeable when the German army marched into northern France in August 1914. In his memories of this invasion, Maximilian von Poseck noted in retrospect:

A unit in erecting barbed wire entanglements
Barbed wire barricade on the Somme during World War I.

“The advance of the cavalry was hampered by increasingly intensive cultivation of the land and industrial buildings. Barbed wire fences, moats, cinder piles, coal pits, walls of industrial plants, railway embankments, canals and the like made the advance heavier and heavier and often prevented larger cavalry units from being deployed. "

Horses still played a role in World War I, but mainly as draft animals and pack animals. The cavalry lost its status as the main branch of arms in World War I and was generally only used for armed reconnaissance and terrain security. In the deadlocked war, in which larger territorial gains were already rare in the first winter of the war, barbed wire proved to be the perfect fastening tool. To be erected cheaply and quickly, it formed an insurmountable defense that could only be overcome through destruction or bridging. Military manuals quickly identified barbed wire barriers as the most effective obstacle for slowing down or even preventing an opponent's attack, and gave precise instructions on how to use them most effectively. A British military manual cited the following characteristics of a well-built barbed wire barn:

  • It has to be so wide that it cannot be easily bridged
  • he must be in the line of fire of the defense,
  • it must be close enough to the trench so that it can be guarded during the night.

The manual also advised protecting the barbed wire barrier with a barrier further in front of it and pulling individual wires in front of it. The barbed wires used quickly differed from those used in agriculture: The barbed wires were much closer together, so that soldiers often injured themselves while erecting their own entanglements, because there were hardly any non-barbed wires that they could grip . In addition, the sting in this case was often almost twice as long as in agriculture.

In the grave fighting , the combination proved by several meters deep barbed basting and machine guns fatal. Many of the victims of this war died from machine gun fire in the barbed wire aprons. It was only with the arrival of tanks towards the end of the war that the barbed wire partially lost its effectiveness as a defensive weapon, but armored vehicles could also get stuck in multiple barbed wire obstacles when the wire wrapped itself in the rollers.

Types of barbed wire

Different barbed wire

According to the number of points (spikes), a distinction is made between two-point and four-point barbed wire. In the case of double-pointed barbed wire, the tips are represented by the ends of a pointed wire. Four tips are made up of two tip wires. The tip wires are wrapped around one or two tension wires in such a way that their ends, which are sheared diagonally, form the tips (spikes), protrude from the tension wire. The tension wires usually have a round cross section, while the tip wires usually have an oval cross section.

According to the number of tension wires, a distinction is made between single-wire and double-wire barbed wire. With two-part barbed wire, two tension wires are twisted (stranded) with one another. Even with low material quality, they have high tensile strength and low temperature sensitivity and sagging tendency. Two-part barbed wire is usually made from unalloyed and alloyed steels of low strength. In recent times, aluminum alloys have also been used. The round or oval tension wires of single-cable barbed wire are usually made of high-strength heat-treated steel . The point wires are secured in their position by pressed-in elevations (so-called shoulders) in the single-rope tension wire. It is also possible to weld on tips.

Fence made from three rolls of barbed wire
Fence made from three rolls of barbed wire (drawing)

In the 1930s, the "Federnwerke Horst Dannert" developed self-supporting concertina barbed wire rolls ( English concertina wire ).

Both tension wires and pointed wires made of steel are usually galvanized to protect against corrosion .

Another form is the flat barbed wire (colloquially known as NATO wire or S or Z wire). Instead of wrapped wires with sharp-edged tips, it consists of a thin sheet of metal with sharp blades punched into it. These rolls of tape are inserted into the laying device and twisted around the longitudinal axis as they roll out.

The NATO wire has been used since the 1960s and has now replaced normal barbed wire in some areas. As a rule, however, it is only used for military or sovereign purposes as a fence and border security.

Manufacturing

Barbed wire is made on special machines. The tension wires drawn into the machine are unwound from wire reels and stranded in the two-wire process. At regular time intervals, corresponding to the distance between the tips, the feed of the tension wires is stopped, and with the help of laterally positioned winding heads the tip wire is fed, wound and then sheared at an angle.

When making four-pointed barbed wire, the pointed wire is fed in from two sides.

By means of resistance pressure welding ( spot welding ), single-core tension wires can be provided with points.

The finished barbed wire is wound on rolls of profile wire and cut off at a certain length (e.g. 400 meters). NATO wire is manufactured as a strip using special punching machines.

General application

Barbed wire is usually placed over normal fences in one or more rows to make it difficult to climb over the fence. Several rows of barbed wire can be arranged one above the other or next to one another. The installation above the actual fence prevents the risk of injury to people and animals passing by.

Another form of barbed wire is the execution in rolls or loops, which is attached to the upper end of fences and walls. This version can be seen particularly often in the military and in penal institutions .

A civil and harmless application is used in earthbag building . As a rule, two parallel strands of four-pointed barbed wire between each two layers prevent the sandbags from slipping.

Animal welfare problem with barbed wire

Eagle owl perished in barbed wire

For animal husbandry, it has proven to be harmful to animals through many serious injuries up to and including fatal results for the fencing, and by perforating the skin of grazing animals, it has reduced the quality of the leather. For reasons of animal and accident protection on public roads, electric pasture fences are being used more and more in agriculture . The use of barbed wire as a fence around horse paddocks and at horse paddocks is specifically prohibited in the Austrian Animal Welfare Act and the associated 1st Animal Husbandry Ordinance and is controversial in Germany. For example, horse farms in Germany have been accused of violating their duty to supervise because horses injured themselves on barbed wire.

Wild animals keep getting stuck and perishing in barbed wire fences. Birds are particularly hard hit, especially owls that hunt at night . According to various studies in Germany, 10 to 16% of the eagle owl die from barbed wire approaches. Even with water birds , especially in geese , it always comes back to deaths. At the North Sea up to 25 geese got stuck in barbed wire fences at one time. These problems have been found around the world.

Legal

In Switzerland , according to the Animal Welfare Ordinance, the use of barbed wire for fences in enclosures has been prohibited since January 1, 2014, although the cantons can grant temporary exemptions for extensive pastures.

Trivia

  • Indians called barbed wire, which contradicted their way of life with its delimitation of open spaces, “devil's rope”.
  • McLean, Texas is home to the Devil's Rope Museum , a museum devoted exclusively to barbed wire.

Documentation

  • The devil's cord. 89-minute television documentary by Sophie Bruneau (Arte, Belgium / France 2016).

literature

  • Robert O Campbell, Vernon L. Allison: Barriers - An Encyclopedia of United States Barbed Wire Patents . Western Profiles Publishing Company, Denver 1986, ISBN 0-937231-00-2 .
  • Harold Hagemejer: The Barbed Wire Identification Encyclopedia . Morris Publishing, Kearney 2001, ISBN 0-9659677-8-6 .
  • Robert Lebegern: Wall, fence and barbed wire. Barriers on the inner-German border 1945–1990. ROLE, Weiden 2002, ISBN 3-936545-00-6 .
  • Reviel Network : Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2
  • Olivier Razac: Political History of the Barbed Wire - Prairie Trench Camp . Diaphanes, Zurich 2003, ISBN 3-935300-31-X .
  • Henry De Rosset McCallum, Frances Tarlton McCallum: The Wire That Fenced The West . University of Oklahoma Press, 1965, ISBN 0-8061-1559-9 .
  • Delbert Trew: Warwire. The History of Obstacle Wire Use in Warfare. Delbert Trew, Alanreed TX 2003, ISBN 0-9659677-3-5 (English).

Web links

Wiktionary: barbed wire  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Commons : Barbed Wire  - Collection of Images

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 17
  2. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 18
  3. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 21
  4. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 22
  5. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 22
  6. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 22
  7. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 26.
  8. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 27.
  9. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 25.
  10. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 26.
  11. Patent US157124 : Improvement in wire fences. Registered October 27, 1873 , published November 24, 1874 , inventor: Joseph F. Glidden.
  12. 135 years ago: Joseph Glidden receives US patent for barbed wire. End of the endless space. WDR 2 from November 22, 2009.
  13. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 28.
  14. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 29.
  15. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 30.
  16. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 31.
  17. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 32.
  18. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 34.
  19. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 40.
  20. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 41.
  21. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 41.
  22. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 41.
  23. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 43. In the original the quote is: A new way of controlling the land, designed to make more efficient use of it, transformed the relations not only between humans and animals but also between different human groups - distinguished by their different access to the new technologies of control over space.
  24. 135 years ago: Joseph Glidden receives US patent for barbed wire. End of the endless space. WDR 2 from November 22, 2009.
  25. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 66.
  26. quoted from Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . S. 93. The original quote is: Barbed wire may be considered as an important innovation in modern warfare, and is likely to be largely employed in future wars .
  27. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 97.
  28. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 99.
  29. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 96.
  30. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 100.
  31. quoted from Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . S. 87. The original quote is: the subdivision of lands into fields by wire fencing is rapidly increasing. ... A few strands of wire, or a bit of difficult ground, will delay a mounted advance quite long enough for the rifle to do its deadly work.
  32. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 81 and p. 86.
  33. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 86.
  34. quoted from Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 88.
  35. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 94.
  36. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 107.
  37. ^ Reviel Netz: Barbed Wire: An Ecology of Modernity . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2004, ISBN 978-0-8195-6959-2 . P. 108.
  38. patent GB480082 : Improvements in barricades. Registered on July 6, 1937 , inventor: Horst Dannert.
  39. Patent CH208591 : Barbed wire, the barbed support of which is formed by a single wire, in particular for the manufacture of wire rollers for military and police obstacles. Registered January 31, 1939 , published May 1, 1940 , inventor: Horst Dannert.
  40. ^ Website of the North Rhine-Westphalia Chamber of Agriculture (accessed November 28, 2010)
  41. Martin Lindner: Bird death in barbed wire . In: Irrgeister. 1–2, 2005, pp. 45–47 PDF, German
  42. Swiss Animal Welfare Ordinance