Susquehannock

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Susquehannock

The Susquehannock , even Susquehanna from 1700 mostly Conestoga called, were a North American Indians - master of the Iroquois - language family .

Naming

The tribal name commonly used today is derived from the place or river name of neighboring Eastern Algonquin peoples , in particular the Powhatan (Renape) Confederation and Lenape . The Lenape referred to them as Sisawehak Hanna Len ("people of the muddy river"), because they lived along the Siskëwahane ("muddy river, ie Susquehanna River "), the tribal territory of the hostile Susquehannock was consequently called Sisa'we'hak'hanna ' unk or Siskuu ànukànakèxën anukanink ("land of the muddy river"). A competing doctrine translates the indigenous river name as (" oyster river") and thus the tribal name as ("people along the oyster river") should be reproduced. The tribes of the Powhatan Confederation on the Atlantic coast of Virginia also called them Sasquesahanough ("people of the muddy river") after the river . The English of Maryland and Virginia adopted the Powhatan name as Susquehannock . It is not known what name the Susquehannock gave themselves.

The Europeans gave the Susquehannock other different tribal names, however, as they tried to use transliteration to adapt the indigenous names of neighboring peoples and to transfer them into their own language; (In addition, the orally snapped exonyms came from tribes of different language families - Algonquin and Iroquois):

  • The Wyandot (Hurons) , another Iroquois-speaking people and often ally of the Susquehannock against the Iroquois and trading partners as well as strong allies of the French, referred to them as Andastoerrhonon ("people of the black ridge"); As the primary trading partner and allies of the Hurons, the French adopted this as Andaste or Andastes (in plural) and the tribal area as Gandastogue , Andastoé and Andastogué .
  • The Lenape and Munsee , two closely related tribes of the Eastern Algonquin and traditional enemies of the Susquehannock and the Iroquois , used the ethnonym Mengwe ("without penis") or Miqui ("foreign, different, far away"), often also as (" treacherous ”or“ insidious, cunning ”); the Dutch and Swedes - trading partners and direct colonial neighbors of the Lenape and Munsee - adopted this name as Minquas , later the Europeans made a further distinction between the "White Minquas" (Susquehannock) and the "Black Minquas" (probably a group of the Iroquois-speaking Erie ).
  • The English of Pennsylvania in the late 18th century, however, referred to it as Conestoga , derived from the indigenous name of one of their large settlements in the area of ​​what is now the small town of Manor Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, which was only known to the English as Conestoga Town . The village name (and later the tribal name) is probably derived from the Iroquois language of the Susquehannock - Kanastoge or Can-ah Da (presumably literally: "place of the upright pole" - "Place of the upright pole", "Buried Pole Place" - " Buried Stake Place "," Submerged Stake Place "; both meaning:" City ") (Historic Conestoga Town should not be confused with the later settlement of Conestoga, Pennsylvania, in present-day Conestoga Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania .)

Tribes of the Susquehannock

By 1600, the Susquehannock numbered about 6,000 to 7,000 members and were most likely a loose confederation of six larger cities (called "royal cities by Smith") named Attaock , Quadroque , Tesinigh , Utchowig and Cepowig (and their associated tribes) and other smaller tribes who lived in A total of about 20 palisade-protected villages lived, Sasquesahanough could have served as the capital of the Confederation (but this is not undisputed). Their tribal area stretched on both sides of the Susquehanna River and its tributaries, from southern New York, through Pennsylvania to Maryland to the mouth of the Susquehanna at the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay.In the 17th century, despite their inland location, they were among the most important trading partners of the European settlers.

The following tribes are generally counted among the Susquehannock (the leading ones appear "bold" ); some tribal names cannot be traced back to any Iroquois language and therefore presumably denote the Susquehannock tributary Algonquin and possibly also the Eastern Sioux tribes:

  • Atra'kwa'e or Atra'kwaye (was in what is now Northumberland County, Pennsylvania , the associated tribe was therefore called Akhrakuaeronon (in Huron-Wendat: Atrakwaeronnon ) or Trakwaehronnon ; a tribe belonging to the Erie was also known by the same name .)
  • Akwinoshioni
  • Atquanachuke (according to reports, they lived along the coast north of Chesapeake Bay across the mountains in New Jersey at the beginning of the 17th century, and they spoke a different language than the Powhatan , the Nanticoke tribes of the Tocwogh and Cuscarawaoc, and Susquehannock (resp. Conestoga), probably one of the smaller Algonquian tribes that came under the rule of the Susquehannock.)
  • Attaock (in the area of ​​today's York, Pennsylvania , also the river basin of the Juniata River was tributary to them.)
    • Onojutta-Haga (also: Juni (a) ta, Iottecas, Ihonado; probably Algonquin-speaking tribes in the river area of ​​the Juniata River , a right tributary of the Susquehanna, were tribute to the "royal city" Attaock.)
  • Carantouan (comprised the elevation of land known as Spanish Hill on the left bank of the Chemung River in the area of ​​today's South Waverly parish in Bradford County, Pennsylvania a few kilometers before its confluence with the Susquehanna River, the tribe belonging to it was therefore referred to as Carantouanais .)
  • Cepowig (was either in what is now Westminster, Maryland or in what is now Gettysburg, Pennsylvania .)
  • Kaiquariegehaga (possibly just a variant of Akhrakuaeronon )
  • Ohonge (e) oguena (may have lived in what is now Pittsburgh , at the confluence of the Monongahela River and the Allegheny River to the Ohio River.)
  • Ogehage, later Oscalui (located near the confluence of Sugar Creek with the Susquehanna River and on the "Warrior Path" north to the hostile Iroquois League, must have been an important village, since "Ogehage" was also the Mohawk name for the Susquehannock; later became it was rebuilt as "Onaquaga" as a majority by Oneida and dispersed Susquehannock.)
  • Quadroque (was located between the royal cities of Sasquesahanough and Tesinigh in what is now Middletown , Dauphin County at the confluence of Swatara Creek in Susquehanna, the tributary area extended to Northumberland, Pennsylvania , at the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River in the Susquehanna River. )
  • Sasquesahanough (possibly leading city of the Confederation, whose inhabitants were therefore simply referred to as Susquehannock and this term was probably transferred to the whole nation.)
  • S (e) conondihago or Skonedidehaga (sometimes equated with the "Shaunetowa" of the also Iroquois-speaking - but hostile - Massawomeck.)
  • Serosquacke (sometimes equated with the "Usserahak" of the also Iroquois-speaking - but hostile - Massawomeck.)
  • Takoulgue (the associated tribe was called Takoulguehronnon ; a tribe assigned to the Erie was also known under the same name.)
  • Tehaque (possibly identical to "Gahontoto" on Wyalusing Creek in the area of ​​today's Wyalusing in Bradford County, Pennsylvania, the capital of the Tehotitachsae or Tehotachsee , were destroyed by the Cayuga around 1750; sometimes with the "Tonhoga / Tohoga" of the same) Iroquois-speaking - but hostile - Massawomeck equated.)
  • Tesinigh (along Swatara Creek (Susquehannock: Swahadowry or Schaha-dawa - "where we feed on eels") in what is now Lebanon, Pennsylvania in the Lebanon Valley of the same name, known as "Wyoming" along the North Branch Susquehanna River probably paying tribute to them.)
    • Scahentoarrhonon or Scahentowanenrhonon (lived in the Wyoming Valley in northeastern Pennsylvania, which they referred to as Scahentowanen - "It is a very large plain", the English corrupted the place and tribal name to "Wyoming", were the "royal city" Tesinigh tribute; 1652 destroyed by the Iroquois League (Five Nations).)
  • Unquehiett
  • Usququhaga
  • Utchowig (in the area of ​​today's Carlisle, Pennsylvania , the tributary area to them probably extended to Great Island, near today's Lock Haven, in Clinton County, Pennsylvania at the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and the right tributary Bald Eagle Creek , they had thus controls an important trade route, the "Great Island Path".)
  • Wysox (in the area of ​​today's Wysox Township, Bradford County, Pennsylvania, along the Wysox Creek of the same name, which flows into the Susquehanna River.)

This number was decimated by epidemics and wars with other tribes by 1700 to about 300 warriors, most of whom surrendered to the Iroquois League or fled to other tribes.

After 1700 the Iroquois League claimed the valley of the Susquehanna River as its territory and established a kind of "shelter" or "reserve" there for several militarily inferior tribes of scattered Iroquois, Algonquin and Eastern Sioux. The Susquehannock, Shawnee, Conoy, Nanticoke, Lenni Lenape (Delaware), Mahican, Saponi, Tutelo, Tuscarora and 12 or 15 other tribes were settled here at different times under the sovereignty of the Iroquois League (Five Nations); These tribes were usually allowed to regulate their internal affairs themselves, but contracts with Europeans or other tribes could only be concluded after consultation and with the permission of the Iroquois League.

The last 20 Susquehannock (then called Conestoga , the name Susquehannock was no longer in use) were finally murdered by the colonists around 1763.

Way of life

Although now (almost) completely forgotten, the Susquehannock were one of the most dangerous and terrifying tribes in the region along the central Atlantic coast during their first contact with the Europeans. The Susquehannock were described as noble, daring, but also as aggressive, warlike, imperious (imperious) and bitter enemies of the Iroquois. It is also reported that they had particularly sophisticated and variable weapons. The English and Swedes were also impressed by their enormous height, which set them apart from the neighboring tribes.

The constant wars among the Iroquois-speaking peoples gave them a military superiority over their more peaceful Algonquin neighboring tribes to the east and south. They organized their often large-scale military campaigns meticulously. They used their canoes for the fast transport of the warriors as well as their food and were able to cover long distances in the water-rich area in a very short time. They almost routinely attacked the Lenni Lenape tribes along the Delaware River and moved down the Susquehanna River to terrorize the Nanticoke , Conoy and Powhatan who lived there . They also fought against the Mahican who lived in the Hudson Valley.

The Susquehannock lived in large fortified villages along the Susquehanna River and its tributaries in Pennsylvania to southern New York State. How far west their territory actually extended is not certain. In any case, it stretched so far west that they were allies and trading partners of the Erie in northern Ohio and the Hurons and Attiwandaronon Neutral in southern Ontario.

Although little is known about their socio-political organization, it may not have differed significantly from that of other Iroquois peoples. There were several tribes that were divided into matrilineal (the origin is derived from the mother) clans. Turtle, fox and wolf are mentioned as possible names of the clans. Like other tribes of the north-eastern woodlands and the Atlantic coast, the Susquehannock practiced large-scale agriculture. In the spring they planted corn, beans, and pumpkins in their fields near their villages. After sowing the seeds, many groups moved south to Chesapeake Bay that summer to fish and forage clams, shellfish and crabs. In the fall, they returned to their villages and fields to bring in the harvest and go hunting.

history

First contacts

The Susquehannock were probably close friends and allies of the Hurons and Attiwandaronon and bitter enemies of the Iroquois even before their first contact with Europeans. Although the Susquehannock inflicted a heavy defeat on the Mohawk , who belonged to the Iroquois League, in the 16th century, the constant wars with the Iroquois forced them to move south to the lower Susquehanna Valley around 1570. From then on, they tried to achieve a kind of hegemony over the neighboring Algonquin tribes through constant raids and military campaigns.

The Powhatan knew the Susquehannock (they called them cannibals, by the way) from painful experience and had therefore relocated their villages and settlements from the coast to the inland to protect them from the Susquehannock war groups who raided the coast with their war canoes. Therefore, the Powhatan had nothing against English settlements in Virginia at first, as they hoped for additional help against their enemies. Even so, the Susquehannock continued to raid Powhatan villages, particularly those of the Potomac, in northern Virginia.

In order to be able to participate in the lucrative fur trade, the Dutch set up a trading post on the Hudson River and traded with the Lenni Lenape on the lower Delaware River and the Delaware Bay. The French, in turn, had established solid trade relations with the Hurons and established a settlement near Quebec on the St. Lawrence River.

When the French crossed the Niagara River in 1615, they reached the Susquehannock and tried to win them as trading partners. In addition, the French had the opportunity to force the Iroquois into a two-front war with the Susquehannock living in the south together with their northern and western allies, the Hurons, Attiwandaronon and Erie. This new alliance (and possible competition from the French) led the Dutch to actively support the Mohawk in their wars against the Susquehannock. Despite their isolated location and relatively small numbers, the Susquehannock managed to become important trading partners for all competing Europeans - the English, French and also the Dutch.

Meanwhile (1624-1628) the Iroquois fought the powerful Mahican Confederation to gain access to trade with the Dutch. After the Mahican were defeated, the Mohawk became the main trading partner of the Dutch in the Hudson Valley. The Susquehannock, on the other hand, began attacking the numerous - but peaceful and disorganized - Lenni Lenape in 1626 and forced them to move south to Delaware and New Jersey around 1630. The Dutch were pleased with the result when they discovered that their new trading partners were good hunters and trappers and had more (and better) furs to offer than the Lenni Lenape. When the Swedes established their first settlement on the Delaware River in 1638, the Lenni Lenape were completely subjugated by the Susquehannock and required permission from the Minqua to sign contracts, such as the cession of the land to build Fort Christina.

After the English had destroyed the Powhatan in 1625 and in a second war (1644 to 1646), which was the only Algonquian confederation strong enough to withstand the Susquehannock, they expanded their hunting grounds south to the Potomac River. This caused the Patuxent , Conoy (Piscataway), Wicomese as well as scattered smaller Algonquin tribes to alliance with the English. This did not prevent the Susquehannock from trading with the English in Virginia, with the Dutch and also with the French (through the intermediary of the Wyandot Hurons) in Canada.

As the English settlements advanced westward into Susquehannock territory and the English continued to protect their Algonquian allies, severe tensions arose which led to war in 1642 when the governor of Maryland declared that the Susquehannock were enemies of the colony and were in visual contact shoot immediately. Between 1640 and 1645 there was no trade with the English, but the Susquehannock more than compensated for this by increasingly visiting the Swedes and Dutch. In 1645 the Susquehannock made peace with Maryland and gave up their land claims in Maryland between the Choptank and Patuxent Rivers.

The Beaver Wars, first clashes (1630–1650)

In order to meet the demand for fur from all four European colonial powers, the Susquehannock soon wiped out all beaver populations in Pennsylvania and were forced to obtain furs through trade with the Erie and Shawnee or through wars with tribes in the Ohio Valley. The so-called Beaver Wars were a period of extremely cruel conflicts over the fur trade between tribes of the Great Lakes and the Ohio Valley, often reaching as far as mutual annihilation. Although the Susquehannock played a major role in this, the fiercest clashes were between the Hurons trading with the French and the Iroquois League trading with the Dutch.

At first, the Europeans gave almost no weapons to the tribes and also limited the amount of ammunition. But when the English tried to bind the Mohawk to them by handing out weapons, the Dutch countered by unrestricted arms deliveries to the Iroquois, which enabled them to attack the Hurons and their allies. The Susquehannock played off the fears of the rival Europeans against each other and were thus well armed from all sides - one of their villages even had a cannon for defense.

The Iroquois had also plundered their hunting grounds and were forced to procure the missing furs through trade or war. But since they were surrounded only by hostile tribes, they either had to subdue them or expect to be destroyed themselves. Therefore they concentrated their attacks against the Hurons first from 1640, in 1645 they isolated them from the Algonquin, Innu (also called Montagnais) and French. In 1647 the Iroquois organized massive attacks on the land of the Hurons (Wyandot) and destroyed the villages of the Arendahronon.

During these wars the Susquehannock were allies of the Hurons, but they suddenly refused any help and were completely overrun by the Iroquois in the winter of 1648 to 1649. The Khionontateronon / Tionontati ( Gens du Petun = "tobacco people" by the French , shortened to Petun , English Tobacco Nation ) fared no better, and when the Iroquois incorporated 1,000 captured warriors, the Susquehannock were in great danger. When the western Iroquois ( Seneca , Cayuga and Onondaga ) attacked the Attiwandaronon in 1650, the Susquehannock joined the war against the Iroquois.

The Beaver Wars, Wars against the Iroquois (1630–1675)

However, when the Mohawk and the Oneida attacked the Susquehannock in 1651, they could not stand by the Attiwandaronon, and when the Erie refused to support, they were quickly defeated. Since the French were powerless after the devastating victories of the Iroquois over the Hurons and Attiwandaronon and the Erie fought alone against the western Iroquois from 1653 to 1656 for survival, the Susquehannock were on their own. The war against the Mohawk and Oneida lasted until 1656, when the Susquehannock had to slowly pull down the eastern branch of the Susquehanna River.

Although the Mohawk and their Oneida allies never fought the Susquehannock again, the peace did not spread to the remaining tribes of the Iroquois League. After finishing the Erie, the Western Iroquois turned their attention to their only remaining Iroquois-speaking enemies. Since the Susquehannock also supported the Erie and Attiwandaronon in their wars and took in their refugees, the war broke out openly in 1658. They were a strong minority and therefore drew their trading partners, the Shawnee, into the fighting and forced the tributary Algonquin and Sioux tribes (Lenni Lenape, Nanticoke, Conoy, Saponi , Tutelo ) to fight by their side. The Iroquois first attacked the Shawnee, expelled them, and forced them to settle in Illinois, Tennessee, and South Carolina. In 1660 they attacked the Lenni Lenape in the Delaware Valley and prevented them from actively participating in the war. The worst defeat for the Susquehannock, however, was the smallpox epidemic of 1661, which completely demoralized, decomposed and decimated their population.

Even so, they could still hold out, as the English in Maryland sold them weapons so they could continue to serve as a bulwark against the Iroquois allied with the Dutch. This made it possible again for the Susquehannock in 1663 to repel a large invasion of the Iroquois. However, when the English took over New York (formerly Nieuw Amsterdam ) from the Dutch, they soon formed an alliance with the Iroquois. Still, Maryland renewed its contract with the Susquehannock. Simultaneously with a renewed outbreak of smallpox, the Iroquois made peace with the French and their Indian allies in 1667 and they could now concentrate on the war against the Susquehannock. In an increasingly bitter struggle for survival, the Susquehannock were forced in autumn 1669 to ask the Iroquois for peace, as they could only muster 300 warriors. Instead of giving an answer, the Iroquois tortured and killed the Susquehannock ambassador. It was not until 1675 that the Iroquois could finally defeat the Susquehannock.

Total annihilation (1675–1763)

Expelled from Pennsylvania by the Iroquois, the survivors settled on the upper reaches of the Potomac River at an invitation from the Governor of Maryland. This solution may have been acceptable to the governor, but not to the local settlers. After several devastations (presumably by the Iroquois), a thousand-strong citizen militia mob attacked the Susquehannock and defeated them. When the Indians were able to convince the settlers that they were peaceful and ready to hold six sachems as hostages , the English withdrew with them. However, when reports of other raids along the way, they killed their hostages.

The Susquehannock now left the Potomac and made several retaliatory raids in the Maryland-Virginia border area. Unfortunately, most of these raids were blamed on the Pamunkey and Occaneechee , allies of Virginia, and resulted in almost total annihilation. The Susquehannock fled north but were largely destroyed by Maryland militias. Some were able to flee to the Meherrin , but most had to finally surrender to the Iroquois in 1676. The peace treaty stipulated that the Susquehannock had to settle between the Mohawk and Oneida (formerly their worst enemies), that they became members of the Iroquois Covenant Chain (alliance between the English and the Iroquois and their subject peoples) and their rule over the Lenni and Lenape other former allies had to cede. In the following years several Susquehannock succeeded in attaining the status of war sachems of the Iroquois.

Even though treated with respect, the Susquehannock were not free. When William Penn tried to sign a contract with the Susquehannock in 1683, he had to learn that they (like the Lenni Lenape) first needed the permission of the Iroquois. As a result, all subsequent deals Pennsylvania did with the Iroquois directly and ignored the subjugated tribes.

Around 1706 the Iroquois showed some compassion and allowed 300 surviving Susquehannock to return to Pennsylvania in the Susquehanna Valley. No longer a powerful people, they were called Conestoga by the English resident there , after the name of their village. The Iroquois nevertheless kept an eye on them and used their former tribal area as a kind of guarded reserve for all displaced Algonquin and Sioux tribes (Lenni Lenape, Nanticoke, Conoy, Tutelo, Saponi, Mahican, Shawnee and New England Algonquin), who were allowed to settle there as members of the "convenant chain".

When Conestoga became a Christian village through the Quaker mission, the more traditional Susquehannock left and either returned to the Oneida in New York State or they moved west to join the Mingo (a Seneca splinter group, not to be confused with Minqua ) . In 1763 there were only 20 people who could be identified as Susquehannock, all of them were Christians and totally peaceful. However, when it came to raids and devastation by other tribes during Pontiac's war, the settlers in the area wanted nothing more than kill Indians - out of revenge - no matter which one. The Conestoga offered themselves as an easy and defenseless target. The mood grew heated and 14 Conestoga were arrested and jailed in Lancaster for their own safety. Meanwhile, a mob (known as the Paxton Boys ) formed and went to the Conestoga village, killed the six remaining residents and burned the village. Then they went to the jail, broke in, and stabbed the last 14 Susquehannock surviving to death. Now there was no more Susquehannock and her name and the whole people were almost forgotten.

various

After the tribal name Conestoga , the widespread carriage type Conestoga (wagon) was named by Pennsylvania German settlers.

In novels

The following novels are written about the Paxton Boys:

See also

literature

  • Paul A. Raber (Ed.): The Susquehannocks: New Perspectives on Settlement and Cultural Identity. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park 2019, ISBN 978-0-271-08476-3 .

Web links

Commons : Susquehannock  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Lenape Talking Dictionary ( memento of the original from November 13, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.talk-lenape.org
  2. ^ Brinton, Daniel G., CF Denke, and Albert Anthony. A Lenâpé - English Dictionary . Biblio Bazaar, 2009. ISBN 978-1103149223
  3. ^ Wallace: Indians in Pennsylvania
  4. ^ Brinton, 81 + 85
  5. ^ Brinton, 132
  6. ↑ Marianne Mithun. 1981. "Stalking the Susquehannocks," International Journal of American Linguistics 47: 1-26.
  7. ↑ JNB Hewitt. 1907. "Conestoga," Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Frederick Webb Hodge, ed. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 30, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 335-337
  8. ↑ Middletown was also named because of its location between the present-day cities of Lancaster and Carlise