Biome

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The biome (Greek bio- "life" with the ending -om ) is the predominant community ( biocenosis ) or the entire predominant ecosystem of an extensive area of ​​the earth's surface. This means that biomes are concrete large habitats with the plants , animals, other organisms and inanimate components that could potentially be found in them . They thus represent a generic term for the entirety of all ecotopes ( biotopes ) occurring therein .

The biome term was developed for continental (terrestrial) biocenoses and is mainly used to this day for such areas of the earth's surface. A terrestrial biome gets its proper name after its typical, fully developed plant formation or after a salient characteristic of its inanimate (abiotic) environment. Properties of the existing macroclimate are often used here. Only recently have aquatic biomes been identified.

The term biome goes back to research approaches in the life sciences and is mainly mentioned in life science textbooks to this day. The more geoscientific term “ ecoregion ” shows a very great similarity to biome in terms of content and is therefore often used synonymously today. The same applies to the geozonal derivatives “zonobiom” ( see below ) and “ ecozone ”, as well as to a number of other terms coined by geoscientists.

The demarcation of large ecosystems according to related relationships that are based on a common geological development is not referred to in biology as a “biome” but as a “ flora or fauna kingdom”.

term

The word biome can be used as the word short form Today Bio for m ation to be interpreted. A bioformation is the entire biocenosis (plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms) of an extensive area of ​​the earth's surface, recognizable by the plant formation of its climax vegetation .

The American botanist Frederic Edward Clements used the term biome in a lecture on December 27, 1916, at that time as a short synonym for biotic community (biocenosis). With this meaning it was used in 1932 to classify biocenoses.

The original biome term did not yet have any direct substantive relation to the plant formation. The connection to plant formations was not made until seven years later. From then on, a biome referred to the biocenosis of climax vegetation, named after its plant formation (→ Potential natural vegetation ):

“The biome or plant-animal formation is the basic community unit, that is, two separate communities, plant and animal, do not exist in the same area. ... The term biome, as employed here, is regarded as the exact synonym of formation and climax when these are used in the biotic sense. "

“The biome, or plant-animal formation, is the basic unit of the community. It follows that two different communities of plants and animals do not exist in the same part of the world. ... The term biome as used here is considered to be the exact synonym for formation and climax [society] when these terms are used in their biological meanings. "

- Frederic Edward Clements : Bio-Ecology : 20
example
After a forest fire in Central Europe, the burned area is initially bare. Then gradually the first plants come up again. The pioneer plants will soon be replaced by light trees . In the shade of light woods to settle shade trees at. They grow beyond the tops of the light trees. As a result, they increasingly take away the light from the light trees. Finally the light trees are displaced. After that, trees made up of shady trees are no longer replaced by other plants. As a result, the end point of the succession was reached with them : A tree population of shady trees is the climax vegetation of the Central European, abiotic environment. In the climax vegetation (climax phytocoenosis) made up of shady trees, there is a certain ensemble of animals (climax phytocoenosis) and many other organisms (fungi, microorganisms). All living beings together form the climax biocenosis of the shadowy woodland. The biome in question can be called tempered deciduous forest . The biome term here only names the plant formation, but automatically includes all living beings of the biocenosis within this formation (plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms).
A population of red beech belongs to the formation of the deciduous deciduous forests.

The biotic term from 1939, which aims exclusively at the biocenosis of climax vegetation, was quickly recognized and remained in use for decades. However, as early as the 1960s, a change in the content of the terminology began. It was initiated by the German-Russian geobotanist Heinrich Karl Walter . He wrote in 1960 that the content of the biome term was not strictly defined. This broke the solid bond between the term biome and the biocenosis. With this in mind, the American plant ecologist Robert Harding Whittaker published his biome definition ten years later :

“A major kind of community, conceived in terms of physiognomy, on a given continent is a biome or formation . ( Formation is used when the concern is with plant communities only, biome when the concern is with both plants and animals. ...) A biome is a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that are similar in vegetation structure or physiognomy ... The Biome concept is most widely applied to land ecosystems but can also be applied in aquatic environments. "

“A prominent form of community, recognized by its appearance, represents a biome or a formation on a given continent . ( Formation is used if only plant communities are taken into account, biome if both plants and animals are taken into account ...) A biome is a grouping of land-based ecosystems on a given continent, which are similar in the structure of their vegetation or in their appearance ... The biome concept is mostly used for terrestrial ecosystems, but can also be used for aquatic environments. "

- Robert Harding Whittaker : Robert Harding Whittaker: Communities and Ecosystems. Pp. 51-52.

Whittaker's biome definition began biotic (“kind of community”) and ended ecologically (“widely applied to land ecosystems”): According to Whittaker, a biome referred to a network of ecosystems that can be grouped together because of their similar biocenoses. Thus the term biotic biome was deviated from. From the 1970s to the 1990s at the latest, both the old biotic and the new ecological biome term were in use. This gave rise to conceptual uncertainties. They were clarified experimentally in 1995 by the German geographer Heinz Nolzen :

“Each climate type or climatic soil type has characteristic plant and animal communities. ... Such characteristic plant and animal communities of a climatically uniform habitat are called bioformations ( plant and animal formations ), their habitats as biomes , large habitats or macroecosystems. The biomes form the ecological macrostructure of the [eco] sphere. "

- Heinz Nolzen : The earth's biozones

Nolzen suggested separating the two biome terms again neatly from one another. For the biotic biome term, he wanted to return to the original word formation bioformation . On the other hand, biome itself should henceforth be reserved solely for the ecological biome term. His suggestion did not prevail. On the one hand, he had just had it printed in a handbook for geography teachers. On the other hand, the word bioformation had now acquired a new bioscientific meaning. Instead, the new ecological biome term continued to gain acceptance, while the old biotic term was consistently used less and less:

"[Biome means] a regional ecosystem with a distinct assemblage of vegetation, animals, microbes, and physical environment often reflecting a certain climate and soil."

"[Biome denotes] a regional ecosystem with a certain combination of plants, animals, microorganisms and inanimate environmental characteristics that often reflect certain climatic and soil conditions."

- The Dictionary of Forestry

According to the new definition of the term, biome also included the abiotic environment ( physiosystem ). By the end of the 1990s at the latest, the original, purely biotic biome term had been replaced by the modified, ecological biome term. The more recent conception nowadays makes biome synonymous with two other terms: ecoregion or ecozone . In contrast to biome , both terms were not coined by bio-scientists but by geoscientists. In terms of content, however, there is broad agreement between them and the ecological biome concept. With a few exceptions, the ecological biome term has now completely replaced the biotic biome term.

Because biomes are identified on the basis of the general appearance of their climax vegetation - that is, on the basis of their " plant formation " - the exact species composition does not matter to them: biomes are not plant communities . This causes cross-continental identifiability.

example
Most of the plant communities in Central Europe belong to the Querco-Fagetea plant community. This means that they typically contain deciduous trees of the oak genus ( Quercus ) and European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ). The area of ​​the European beech is limited to Europe. Because plant communities are determined according to their species population, precisely these plant communities cannot exist outside Europe due to the lack of red beeches. The plant class Querco-Fagetea, however, represents the plant formation of the deciduous deciduous forests in Central Europe. Such deciduous forests can also be found on the east coast of the USA and in coastal China. The biome, which is identified on the basis of the plant formation of the deciduous deciduous forests, occurs on three continents, although the plant species present differ in each case.

The same appearance - the same plant formation - with different species inventories is the result of analogous evolution : Different species, which do not necessarily have to be closely related to one another, have evolved into similar forms due to similar environmental conditions. Therefore, the same formative similarities also allow conclusions to be drawn about the same environmental conditions.

Biome size

One difficulty of the term biome is based on the fact that this one word can be used to name the biocenoses - or the ecosystems - areas of the ecosphere of different sizes .

  • Biome as zonobiom: The zonobiom is the name of the biocenosis - or the ecosystem - of an area of ​​the earth of zonal (earth-encompassing) extent , the location of which is primarily based on the climate zones . Although the number fluctuates slightly between authors, fewer than 30 zonobiomes are always reported worldwide. Such a small number can be used to identify when an author uses the biome term for zonobiome. Zonobiomes also become main biomes. called larger biomes or biome types .
  • Biome as Eu biome: Each zonobiom can be subdivided further. These subdivisions form the actual (Eu-) biomes. The Eu-biome names the biocenosis - or the ecosystem - of a region of the earth. While there are only a handful of zonobiomes globally, several hundred EU biomes can be identified worldwide. Such a large number can be used to identify when an author uses the biome term for Eu biomes.
A Eu-biome either describes the biocenosis of an area of ​​the earth of regional extent (classic term, green) or names the entire ecosystem in its regional extent. In the latter case, Eu-Biom becomes a synonym for ecoregion (new term, orange).
A zonobiom describes either the biocenosis of an earth's zonal - i.e. earth-encompassing - extension (classic term, green) or names the entire ecosystem in its zonal extension. In the latter case, zonobiom becomes a synonym for ecozone (new term, orange).

Biome according to Walter and Breckle: Zonobiome, Orobiome, Pedobiome

“We understand [under Eu-Biome] an overlookable landscape unit, z. B. in the climatic series the Central European deciduous forests or in the deserts the Sonoran Desert ... There are several hundred EU biomes worldwide. "

- Heinrich Karl Walter, Siegmar-Walter Breckle : Ecology of the Earth, Volume 1 · Basics. P. 27.

In the German-speaking area, the system of biomes according to Heinrich Karl Walter and Siegmar-Walter Breckle was able to establish itself. Your. Biomes do not have a purely biotic, but rather an ecological character. In this way, biomes are assigned not only certain types of vegetation, but also certain types of soil . The reasonably rigorous soil type assignments made by the two authors can be questioned. Nevertheless, soil formation often involves interactions between living things and the inanimate lithosphere .

It follows from this that the term biome according to Walter and Breckle has ecological components. Elsewhere, their biomes are even referred to as “ habitats ”. The references to the abiotic environmental equipment give these biomes an ecological meaning. They are thus moving closer to the ecoregions or ecozones.

Walter and Breckle distinguish three series of biomes - zonobiome, orbiome and pedobiome. The terms were invented by Heinrich Karl Walter and were first published in 1976.

  • Zonobiome: A zonobiom summarizes landscapes that show greater similarities in the examined features of climate, vegetation, fauna and soil. The most important differentiating criterion for Walter and Breckle is the climate. The spatial location of the zonobiome is therefore primarily based on the climatic zones . This is why zonobiomes, like climatic zones, wrap around the earth in a belt shape, from the tropics to the two polar zones. In this context, the zonobiome system fits into the geozonal models of biogeography .
Walter and Breckle work out a total of nine zonobiomes. They form the main sequence - the rough basic grid - of the biomes, which is primarily determined by the climate. Because they are mainly based on the climatic zones , their location and extent are heavily dependent on the macroclimate . In contrast to the microclimate, the macroclimate cannot be changed directly by the biocenosis. The location of the zonobiome is largely based on this abiotic location factor without life having any direct influence on it. Accordingly, zonobiomes mainly follow the prevailing temperature and precipitation conditions. More precisely, they follow the maximum cooling of the air in the year and the total annual precipitation in their seasonal distribution. Those conditions, in turn, depend on the latitude (→ lighting zones ), the distance to the sea (→ oceanity / continentality ) and possibly high mountains that hold back precipitation (→ climatic divisions ). Very extensive zonobiomes may be subdivided into sub-zonobiomes, which are identified according to certain climatic peculiarities. This happens with zonobiom VII (zonobiom of continental, arid-temperate climate with cold winters). It is divided into the sub-zonobiomes VII a, VII b and VII c.
The Alps are an interzonal orobiom.
  • Orobiome: Orobiome form the mountain-related (orographic) side series of biomes. They differ from the surrounding zonobiomes by their mountainous nature. Orobiomes form narrow belts that run around the mountains depending on the altitude (→ altitude levels ). The orbiomes are divided into three groups according to their location:
    • Unizonal Orobiomes: Orobiomes that lie within a single zonobiome, for example Tibesti , Kilimanjaro .
    • Multizonal Orobiome: Orobiome that extend through several zonobiome, for example the Urals . A separate sub-orbiome is identified for each zonobiom cut through.
    • Interzonal orbiomes: Orobiomes that lie on the line between two zonobiomes and separate them as an effective climate divide, for example the Alps .
  • Pedobiome: Pedobiome form the soil-related (edaphic) side row of biomes. They differ from the surrounding zonobiomes due to special, abiotic soil properties. Pedobiome are scattered more or less irregularly in the zonobiome. The pedobiome are divided into seven groups according to their soil properties:
    • Lithobiome: Pedobiome on hard rock that has hardly been weathered, for example lava covers .
    • Psammobioma: Pedobioma on sand, for example sand dunes .
    • Halobiome: Pedobiome of the salt soils, for example the Etosha pan .
    • Helobiome: Pedobiome of the swamps, for example the Sudd .
    • Hydrobiome: Pedobiome of the waterlogged soils, for example on the soil types Dy , Sapropel or Gyttja .
    • Peinobiome: Pedobiome of the nutrient-poor soils, for example the cerrado .
    • Amphibiomas: Pedobiomas on temporarily flooded soils, for example in the mudflats or under mangrove forests .

Each of the zonobiome and sub-zonobiome, orbiome and pedobiome is in turn built from Eu biomes. In this way, a global biome mosaic is created from several hundred Eu biomes. The division of the earth into biomes corresponds to the attempt to divide the extremely diverse spaces of the earth into larger spatial units based on a few far-reaching criteria. A big problem is the fact that in nature there are usually only flowing transitions and hardly any clearly defined boundaries. Walter and Breckle solve the problem by creating transitional spaces between the clearly definable core areas of the biomes, which they termed ecotones . In such areas of the gradual transition from one biome to the next (“ecological tension areas”) there is a large variety of ecological niches . As a result, there are comparatively many animal and plant species. The subalpine altitude level is seen as an ecotone between the orobiomes of the montane and alpine altitude levels.

  • The ecotones between zono- biomes are called zono-ecotones or zono-ecotones . Typical zonoecotones are, for example, the forest tundra between the boreal and the polar zonobiom and the forest steppe between the boreal and the continental zonobiom.

In 1988, the term ecotones was adopted with exactly the same meaning in the then newly developed concept of eco-zones, which in terms of content hardly differs from zonobiomes. However, more eco-tones are explicitly shown on current zonobiom maps than on the previously published eco-zone maps.

Table overview

Zonobiome (Walter / Breckle)
type Zonobiom Macroclimate Ground zone Vegetation zone Remarks
I. Equatorial zonobiom Time of day climate . Mostly completely humid . Equatorial brown loam. Ferralitic soil latosols . Evergreen tropical rainforest . Seasonal aspects almost absent.
II Tropical zonobiom Humid-arid climate. Summer rainy season. Cool drought season. Red loam or red earth. Fersiallitic savanna soils. Tropical deciduous forest or savanna .
III Subtropical zonobiom Arid desert climate. At most sparse rainfall. Sieroseme or Syroseme . Also salt soils . Subtropical desert vegetation . Rocks determine the landscape.
IV Mediterranean zonobiom Arid-humid climate. Winter rainy season. Summer drought. Mediterranean brown earth . Often fossil terra rossa . Hard deciduous trees. With sensitivity to prolonged frosts.
V Warm-tempered zonobiom Mild maritime climate. Or often with maximum summer rain. Red or yellow forest floors. Light podsolization . Temperate evergreen forest. With slight sensitivity to frost.
VI Nemoral zonobioma Typical temperate climate. With a short winter cold. Forest brown earth or gray forest soil. Often lessivation . Nemoral winter bare deciduous forest. Greater frost resistance.
VII Continental zonobiom Arid temperate climate. With cold winters. Chernoseme . Kastanoseme . Buroseme to Sieroseme. Steppe to desert vegetation. Greater frost resistance. Only summer months are hot.
VIII Boreal zonobiom Cold temperate climate. With cool summers and long winters. Podsole or raw humus fuller's earth. Boreal coniferous forest . Strong frost resistance.
IX Polar zonobiom Polar climate. With very short summers. Humus-rich tundra soils. With strong solifluction phenomena. Tree-free tundra vegetation . Mostly permafrost .

map

Zonobiome and zonoecotons of the earth according to Walter u. Breckle


(largely equal-area Eckert VI map projection )

The zono-ecotones (transitional spaces) are hatched diagonally in the respective colors.
The areas each contain half of the adjacent zono-ecotones

I - zonobiom of tropical rainforest areas approx. 9%
II - zonobiom of tropical-subtropical rainy season forests and savannas approx. 20%
III - zonobiom of hot semi-deserts and deserts approx. 13%
IV - Mediterranean zonobiom (warm temperatures, areas exposed to drought and episodic frost with hardwood forests) approx. 2%
V - Laurel forest zonobiom (warm temperatures, rainy, episodic frost-loaded areas with evergreen forests) approx. 3%
VI - Nemoral zonobiom (winter cold areas with deciduous forests) approx. 5%
VII a) - Winter cold full desert zonobiom VII = approx. 12%  (4%)
VII b) - Winter cold semi-desert zonobiom  (3%)
VII c) - Winter cold steppe zonobiom  (5%)
VIII - Boreal Zonobiom (winter cold coniferous forest areas) approx. 10%
IX - Polar zonobiom (tundras and polar deserts) approx. 10%
Ice sheets and glaciers approx. 5%
Mountain ranges (Orobiome) approx. 11%

Simplifications and selections

Polar zonobiom (Walter / Breckle), or tundra (Odum), or subarctic and arctic vegetation (grains)

The zonobiome according to Heinrich Karl Walter and Siegmar-Walter Breckle were adopted by many authors in their own textbooks. In the process, however, they were often simplified or only the particularly widespread or very distinctive biomes were singled out. Above all, the zonobiome were no longer named macroclimatologically, but the prevailing vegetation was used directly for the naming.

Zonobiome (Walter / Breckle) Main biome (Odum) Biome (grain)
Zonobiome Main biomes Biomes
Equatorial zonobiom Tropical rainforest biomes Humid tropical lowland forests
Humid tropical mountain forests
Tropical and subtropical high mountain vegetation
Tropical shallow coasts with sand or coral debris
Tropical zonobiom Tropical shrub and deciduous forest biomes Tropical semi-evergreen forests
Tropical savanna biomes Tropical savannas
Tropical and subtropical mud coasts in the tidal range (mangrove forests)
Subtropical zonobiom Desert biomes Hot desert vegetation
Pinyon Juniper Biomes
Mediterranean zonobiom Hardwood biomes Winter rain areas of the Mediterranean climate type
Temperate to Mediterranean flat coasts
Temperate to Mediterranean cliffs
Warm-tempered zonobiom Evergreen subtropical deciduous forest biomes Laurel forest zone
Nemoral zonobioma Tempered deciduous forest biomes Deciduous forests of the temperate zone
Mountain forests of the temperate zone
Alpine vegetation of the temperate zone
Cool-temperate to polar rocky coasts
Continental zonobiom Temperate grassland biomes Steppes and prairies
Deserts of the temperate zone
Boreal zonobiom Nordic pine forest biomes Boreal forests
Polar zonobiom Tundra Subarctic and arctic vegetation

Whittaker and Haggett biomes: biome types and land biomes

The classification according to zonobiomes goes back at least to the year 1976 and was introduced almost simultaneously in the English-speaking area. There, however, two other outlines for larger biomes had already been published three years and five years earlier. The structure of the British cultural geographer Peter Haggett came from 1972 and that of the American plant ecologist Robert Harding Whittaker from 1970 .

Biome types

Robert Harding Whittaker identifies 25 biome types. Compared to the zonobiom classification, this is almost three times as many larger biomes. The noticeable numerical difference is due to the fact that Whittaker identifies some ecosystems as independent biome types, which Walter and Breckle classify as oro or psammobiome within the larger zonobiome. Harding's textbook was published in two editions and had some influence. However, it was not translated into German.

Biome types according to Robert Harding Whittaker
Biome type number Biome type
1 tropical rain forests
2 tropical seasonal forests (deciduous / semideciduous)
3 temperate giant rainforests
4th other temperate rainforests
5 temperate deciduous forests
6th temperate evergreen forests
7th subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests
8th elfin woodlands
9 thorn forests and woodlands
10 thorn scrub
11 temperate woodlands
12 temperate shrublands
13 savannas
14th temperate grasslands
15th alpine grasslands
16 tundras
17th tropical and subtropical deserts
18th warm-temperate deserts
19th cool-temperate desert scrub
20th arctic-alpine deserts
21st cool-temperate sphagnum bog
22nd tropical fresh-water swamp forests
23 temperate fresh-water swamp forests
24 mangrove swamps
25th saltmarshes

Land biomes

The zonobiome of Walter and Breckle and also the biome types of Whittaker persist in a physiogeographical, a scientific perspective. The perspective includes the macroclimate, the biocenosis based on the vegetation and possibly the predominant soil type . Here Peter Haggett continues. Because Haggett also has the work and economy of the people in view. He assigns traditional forms of agriculture and average population densities to each of his twelve land biomes. He also tried - as in a similar way a decade later German geographers - from the environmental structure of Landbiome to the natural environment potential to close. To do this, he determines their productivity classes :

Peter Haggett expanded the term biome to include cultural-geographic content. His approach, however, received far less attention even among geographers than the purely scientific zonobiomes or than the newer concept of the ecozones, which is congruent in content with the zonobiomes.

Land biomes according to Peter Haggett
Land biomass type Land biome Dominant vegetation Essential precipitation characteristics Essential temperature characteristics
Wooded areas Equatorial Broad-leaved, evergreen forest. Great biodiversity. Swamp forests on flooded plains and coasts. High annual precipitation amounts (over 1000 mm). Uniformly high temperatures all year round.
Peripheral mid-latitudes Broad-leaved deciduous forests. Deciduous forests with leaf fall. Mixed forests that border warm land biomes. Evergreen forests on the eastern periphery. Moderate annual precipitation amounts (750 mm to 1000 mm). Cool to warm-moderate annual average temperatures. Seasonal temperature fluctuations become more pronounced with increasing continental location.
Boreal Coniferous forests. Relatively uniform locations with a low number of species, e.g. B. spruce, pine, pine, larch. Low annual precipitation totals at summer maximum (250 mm to 500 mm). Short cool summers. Very large seasonal temperature fluctuations.
Mixed areas savannah Open savannahs with tall grass to deciduous monsoon forest. Gallery forest along the rivers. Very different annual precipitation totals (250 mm to 2000 mm) with pronounced spring or summer maximum. Warm annual average temperatures. Little seasonal temperature fluctuations.
Mediterranean areas Evergreen, drought-resistant hardwood trees and shrubs. Low to moderate total annual precipitation (500 mm to 750 mm) with pronounced summer drought. Warm-moderate annual average temperatures. Mean seasonal temperature fluctuations.
Mid-latitude grasslands Prairie with tall grass to short grass steppe - depending on the humidity of the area Low to moderate annual precipitation amounts (300 mm to 600 mm) at spring or summer maximum. Considerably fluctuating amounts of precipitation from year to year. Very strong seasonal temperature fluctuations. Cold winters.
Barren areas Arid and semi-arid Drought-resistant bushes. Salt deserts. Sand free of vegetation. Rock deserts. Very low annual precipitation totals (0 mm to 250 mm). Considerably fluctuating amounts of precipitation from year to year. Very high summer temperatures. Moderate seasonal temperature fluctuations in the tropics. Very large seasonal temperature fluctuations in the middle latitudes.
Tundra Low herbaceous plants. Mosses and lichens. Low annual precipitation amounts (100 mm to 400 mm) at late summer or autumn maximum. Severe cold. Short, cool summers.
Polar regions Ice caps. No vegetable life. Low annual precipitation totals. Extreme cold. No monthly average temperature above 0 ° C.

Anthromas

The two American geographers Erle C. Ellis and Navin Ramankutty created the term “anthrome” from the compound term “ anthropogenic biome”, which they use in their biome model published in 2008. The focus here is on the influence of human land use , as humanity now consumes around a third of the terrestrial net primary production and has a more or less influential effect on more than 75% of the ice-free land surface. Global environmental changes and future scenarios evaluate the ecosystem services of natural biomes and anthromes. All studies identify negative trends that threaten people's livelihoods.

See also

literature

  • R. Abell, ML Thieme, C. Revenga, M. Bryer, M. Kottelat, N. Bogutskaya, B. Coad, N. Mandrak, S. Contreras Balderas, W. Bussing, MLJ Stiassny, P. Skelton, GR Allen, P. Unmack, A. Naseka, R. Ng, N. Sindorf, J. Robertson, E. Armijo, JV Higgins, TJ Heibel, E. Wikramanayake, D. Olson, HL López, RE Reis, JG Lundberg, MH Sabaj Pérez , P. Petry: Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Biogeographic Units for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation. In: BioScience. 58 (2008), pp. 403-414. doi: 10.1641 / B580507 (pdf)
  • G. Grabherr: Color Atlas of Earth's Ecosystems . Ulmer, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-8001-3489-6 .
  • C. Grains: population and vegetation ecology. In: Strasburger textbook of botany . Heidelberg 2008, ISBN 978-3-8274-1455-7 , pp. 1086-1119.
  • EP Odum: Ecology . Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-13-382303-5 , pp. 424-443.
  • DM Olson, E. Dinerstein, E. Wikramanayake, N. Burgess, G. Powell, EC Underwood, J. d'Amico, I. Itoua, H. Strand, J. Morrison, C. Loucks, T. Allnutt, TH Ricketts , Y. Kura, W. Wettengel, K. Kassem: Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth. In: BioScience. 51 (2001), pp. 933-938 doi : 10.1641 / 0006-3568 (2001) 051 [0933: TEOTWA] 2.0.CO; 2 (pdf)
  • RE Rosiere: Range Types of North America - Literature Review - Biome. 2000-2009. (Items)
  • R. Pott: General geobotany . Berlin / Heidelberg 2005, ISBN 3-540-23058-0 , pp. 353-398.
  • H. Walter, SW. Breckle: Ecology of the Earth, Volume 1 · Basics . Stuttgart 1991, ISBN 3-437-20454-8 , pp. 18-29.
  • MD Spalding, HE Fox, GR Allen, N. Davidson, ZA Ferdana, M. Finlayson, BS Halpern, MA Jorge, A. Lombana, SA Lourie, KD Martin, E. McManus, J. Molnar, CA Recchia, J. Robertson : Marine Ecoregions of the World: A Bioregionalization of Coastal and Shelf Areas. In: BioScience. 57 (2007), pp. 573-583 doi: 10.1641 / B570707 pdf

Web links

Wiktionary: Biome  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ See Online Etymology Dictionary: biome (English)
  2. ↑ H. Kehl: Vegetation Ecology Tropical & Subtropical Climates / LV-TWK (B.8) , TU Berlin
  3. ↑ Cf. C. Körner: Population and Vegetation Ecology. In: Strasburger textbook of botany. Heidelberg 2008, ISBN 978-3-8274-1455-7 , p. 1073.
  4. ^ FE Clements: The development and structure of biotic communities . Ecological Society of America - New York meeting December 27-29 (1916), program booklet, p. 5.
  5. ^ VE Shelford: Basic principles on the classification of communities and habitats and the use of terms. In: Ecology. 13 (1932), pp. 105-120.
  6. ↑ FE Clements: Chaper 2. In: FE Clements, VE Shelford: Bio-Ecology . New York 1939.
  7. ^ RJ Carpenter: The biome. In: American Midland Naturalist. 21 (1939), pp. 75-91.
  8. ^ N. Polunin: Introduction to Plant Geography and Some Related Sciences. London 1960, p. 211.
  9. ↑ EP Odum: Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia 1971, p. 378.
  10. ↑ SH Spurr, BV Barnes: Forest Ecology. New York 1980, pp. 460-461.
  11. ↑ quoted from Odum EP: Ecology . Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-13-382303-5 , p. 424.
  12. ^ A b c R. H. Whittaker: Communities and Ecosystems . Toronto 1970.
  13. ↑ a b c H. Nolzen: The biozones of the earth. In: H. Nolzen (Ed.): Geozonen . Cologne 1995, p. 55.
  14. ↑ H. Nolzen (Ed.): Geozonen . Cologne 1995.
  15. ^ RLS Patterson, BV Charlwood, AA Williams (ed.): Bioformation of Flavors . Cambridge 1992.
  16. ↑ JAM de Bont: Bioformation of optically pure epoxides. In: Tetrahedron: Asymmetry . 4 (1993), p. 1331.
  17. ↑ JA Helms (Ed.): The Dictionary of Forestry . Bethesda 1998.
  18. ^ NA Campbell: Biology . Heidelberg 1997, p. 1160.
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