Panthays: Difference between revisions

Panthay
Burmese: ပန်းသေး, Chinese: 潘泰
Regions with significant populations
	Myanmar and China
Religion
	Islam
Related ethnic groups
	Hui people, Chin Haw, Dungan

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Panthays (Burmese: ပန်းသေးလူမျိုး; MLCTS: pan: se: lu myui:; Chinese: 潘泰人) are Chinese Muslims in Myanmar. Panthays are one of the oldest groups of Muslims in Burma. The exact proportion of the Chinese Muslim group in the local Chinese population remains unknown due to a lack of data. However, they are concentrated particularly in the northern part of Myanmar, closer to Yunnan, China from where the Panthays historically originated. They particularly reside in the towns of Tangyan, Maymyo, Mogok, and Taunggyi in Mandalay and Shan State.

Etymology[edit]

The name Panthay is a Burmese word, which is said to be identical with the Shan word Pang hse.^[1] It was the name by which the Burmese refer to Chinese Muslims who came with caravans to Burma from the Chinese province of Yunnan. The name was not used or known in Yunnan itself.^[2] The predominant Muslim ethnic group living in Yunnan are the Hui (Chinese: 回族) and identify as Hui or Huihui (Chinese: 回回), but never as Panthay.^[3]^[4] Notably, the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan during the mid 19th century is called in Chinese as either the Du Wenxiu Rebellion or the Pingnan Kingdom.^[5]

Several theories are suggested as to its derivation, but none is strong enough to refute the others. The Burmese of Old Burma called their own indigenous Muslims Pathi, a word deriving from Persian. It was applied to all Muslims other than the Chinese Muslims. The term "Panthay" being used for Yunnanese Muslims dates from about this time; it was widely used by British travelers and diplomats in the region from about 1875.^{[citation needed]}

One other theory is that Panthay is shortened version of the Burmese phrase "Tarup Pase", meaning Chinese Muslim. This was then anglicised by Sladen in his 1868 expedition to Dengyue, Yunnan. The term Panthay achieved widespread usage during the period of British rule, and remains the name by which Myanmar's Chinese Muslim community has generally been distinguished in English language sources to this day.^{[citation needed]}

Culture[edit]

During the Panthay Rebellion, Sultan Suleiman (Du Wenxiu) was eager to establish close and friendly relations neighboring states. He took the opportunity to have a Chinese Muslim mosque installed at the Burmese King's capital. He sent Colonel Mah Too-tu, one of his senior military officers, as his special envoy and agent to Mandalay with the important mission. The mosque took about two years to finish and was opened in 1868 as the second mosque to be built in the royal capital. Today, 134 years later, the Panthay Mosque is still standing as the second oldest mosque in Mandalay. [1]

No comprehensive census of the remaining Panthay population within Burma has been taken since 1931 as the 1941 census was cancelled. Restrictions on travel for foreigners, combined with the weak central government control over outlying areas of the Shan and Kachin Hills where many Panthays live, made attempts to calculate the Panthay population almost impossible in 1980. An estimate of 100,000 Panthays resident within Burma appeared in the Burmese daily Hanthawaddi in 1960.^{[citation needed]}.

Readily identifiable Panthay communities continue to exist in several areas like Yangon, Mandalay, Taunggyi. Ny report, the Panthays have communities in Kengtung, Bhamo, Mogok, Lashio, Pyin-Oo-Lwin and at Tanyan, near Lashio.^[6] Wherever they have settled in sufficient numbers, the Panthays have established their own mosques and madrasas. Some of these mosques are in "pseudo-Moghul" style, clearly having been influenced by Indian Muslim tastes and styles, whilst others (notably at Mandalay) have Chinese architectural features.

As with the Hui in China, the Burmese Panthay are exclusively Muslims adhering to the Hanafi school of thought. Few are conversant with more than the most elementary phrases of Arabic, and quite often when a Panthay imam is not available to care for the spiritual welfare of a community, a South Asian and Zerbadi Muslim is engaged instead. The Zerbadi are descendent community of intermarriages between foreign Muslim (South Asian and Middle Eastern) males and Burmese females.^[7]

Panthay caravaners[edit]

In the pre-colonial times the Panthays emerged as excellent long-distance caravaneers of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They virtually dominated whole caravan trade of Yunnan by the time the first pioneers of French and British imperialism arrived in Yunnan. By the mid 19th century the caravans of Yunnanese traders ranged over an area extending from the eastern frontiers of Tibet, through Assam, Burma, Thailand, Laos and Tongkin (presently part of Vietnam), to the southern Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou and Guangxi. The Chinese Muslim domination of the Yunnan caravan network continued well into the 20th century.^{[citation needed]}

The Chinese Muslims of Yunnan were noted for their mercantile prowess. Within Yunnan, the Muslim population excelled as merchants and soldiers, the two qualities, which made them ideally suited to the rigors of overland trade in the rugged, mountainous regions, and to deserve the rewards therefrom. They might have been helped in this by their religion of Islam from its inception had flourished as a Religion of Trade. The religious requirement to perform Hajj pilgrimage had also helped them to establish an overland road between Yunnan and Arabia as early as the first half of the 14th century.^[8]

The merchandise brought from Yunnan by the Panthay caravaneers included silk, tea, metal utensils, iron in the rough, felts, finished articles of clothing, walnuts, opium, wax, preserved fruits and foods, and dried meat of several kinds. The Burmese goods taken back to Yunnan were raw cotton, raw and wrought silk, amber, jades and other precious stones, velvets, betel-nuts, tobacco, gold-leaf, preserves, paper, dye woods, stick lac, ivory, and specialized foodstuffs such as slugs, edible bird's nest, among other things.^[9] Raw cotton, which was reserved as a royal monopoly, was in great demand in China. An extensive trade in this commodity had existed between the Konbaung dynasty and Yunnan. Goods were transported up the Ayeyarwady River to Bhamo where it was sold to the Chinese merchants, and conveyed partly by land and partly by water into Yunnan, and from there to other provinces of China. Most caravans consisted of between fifty and one hundred mules, employing ten to fifteen drivers.^[10]

History[edit]

Muslims in Yunnan[edit]

The history of the Panthays in Burma was inseparably linked to that of Yunnan, their place of origin. Within Yunnan, the Chinese Muslim population excelled as merchants and soldiers, which made them ideally suited to the rigors of overland trade in the mountainous regions. Commercial and cultural contacts between the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and the Irrawaddy Delta and lower Salween River probably predate significant migration by Han Chinese or Bamar populations into either area.

In the 8th century, the Yi state of Nanzhao^[11] was the dominant power in the region, a position which both it and its successor, the Dali Kingdom, held until the Mongol conquest of the region five centuries later.^{[citation needed]}. Despite the political independence of Nanzhao, Chinese cultural influence penetrated the frontier region throughout the Tang and Song dynasties. It is possible that during the mid-Tang period – in about 801 – surrendered Muslim soldiers, described in the Chinese Annals as the Hēiyī Dàshí (Chinese: 黑依大使; pinyin: Hēiyī Dàshí, "Black-clad Tay'ī, a term referring to the black flags of the Abbasid Caliphate^[12]) were first settled in Yunnan.^{[citation needed]}

It is at least certain that Muslims of Central Asian origin played a major role in the Yuan conquest and rule of Southwest China. As a result, a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century. One important soldier-administrator was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a Turkic court official and general who became Yuan Governor of Yunnan from 1274–79. His son Nasir al-Din, was in charge Yunnan's road systems and commanded the first Mongol invasion of Burma in 1277.^[13] Shams al-Din is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building temples of Confucius as well as mosques and schools.^{[citation needed]} During his rule, a significant number of Muslim soldiers of Central Asian origin were transferred to Yunnan, which was still largely unpopulated by Han Chinese settlers. The descendants of these Muslim garrison troops are the nucleus of present-day Chinese Muslim populations both in Yunnan and Burma.^{[citation needed]}

Within Yunnan, the Hui Muslim population flourished throughout the Yuan and Ming periods. In the early Yuan dynasty, Marco Polo noted the presence of "Saracens" amongst the population during his visit. The Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani similarly recorded in the Jami' al-tawarikh that "the great city of Yachi" in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Dali, which was the earliest centre of Hui settlement in Yunnan.

Panthays during Konbaung period[edit]

In the 19th century, during the Konbaung period, Panthays started to settle in the royal capital of Mandalay, particularly during the reign of King Mindon. Although their number was small, a few found their way inside the court as jade-assessors. They lived side by side with non-Muslim Chinese in Chinatowns (Burmese: တရုတ်တန်း;tayoke tan), which had been designated by King Mindon as the residential area for the Chinese. The non-Muslim Chinese had started settling in considerably earlier. So by the arrival of the Panthays, there already was a Chinese community at Mandalay with its own bank, companies and warehouses and organized social and economic life.^{[citation needed]}

It happened that there were also already Chinese jade-assessors in the employ of the king. Rivalry between the Chinese and Panthay jade-assessors in courting the royal favor naturally led to a quarrel between the two groups, resulting in a number of deaths.^[14] King Mindon did not give much serious thought to the religious and social differences between the Panthays and the Chinese. But after the Chinatown quarrel, the king began to see the wisdom of separating the two groups.^{[citation needed]}

King Mindon granted the Panthays of the royal capital land on which to settle as a separate community. The goal being to preventing further quarrels between them and the Chinese. The Panthays were given the rare favor of choosing their own place of residence within the confines of the royal capital, and they chose the site on which the present-day Panthay Compound is located. It was bounded on the north by 35th Street, in the south by 36th Street, in the east by 79th Street and in the west by 80th Street. This site was chosen because it was the camping ground for the mule caravans from Yunnan, which regularly came to the capital via the Hsenwi route.^{[citation needed]}

The King also permitted a mosque to be built on the granted site so that the Panthays would have their own place of worship. Having no funds for an undertaking of such magnitude, the Panthays of Mandalay put up the matter to the Sultan of Yunnan. Sultan Sulaiman had already started a business enterprise (hao) in Mandalay and was happy to take the opportunity.

Panthay rebellion[edit]

According to Ming Guangshi's book Panthay History, the Panthay originate from the families of some loyal lieutenants of the self-proclaimed Sultan of Yunnan - the Hui General Du Wenxiu (Chinese: 杜文秀). These families fled to Wa State in northern Shan State after the failure of the Panthay Rebellion under the leadership of Ma Lin-Gi (Chinese: 馬靈驥). Ma Lin-Gi divorced his wife of surname Yuan and married a widow of surname Ting. They later had two sons, the elder named Mah Mei-Ting (馬美廷) born in 1878 and the second son named Mah Shen-Ting (馬陞廷) born in 1879. The older son later became the leader of the Panthay community in Myanmar.

During early 19th century, the Hui Muslim and other minority peoples of Yunnan faced increased population pressures as a result of Han Chinese migration to the province. Resentment against this development, coupled with mounting hostility towards Qing rule, led to the Panthay Rebellion in 1855. Muslim miners in the Jianshui region were the starting point of the rebellion. Within two years, the center of rebellion had spread to westwards under the leadership of Du Wenxiu. Du was a Hui born in Yongcheng. Du Wenxiu's father was a Han who converted to Islam.^[15]

The unfavorable discrimination with which the Hui were treated was at the root of their rebellions.^[16] However, the revolt was not religious in nature, since the Muslims were joined by non-Muslim Shan and Kakhyen groups.^[17] In addition, loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing crush the rebel Muslims.^[18]

For the next fifteen years, until the Qing reconquest, Dali remained the capital of the self-proclaimed Pingnan Kingdom, "Country of the peaceful South", proclaimed as an "Islamic Kingdom of Yunnan". Du erected a Forbidden City, wore Ming hanfu in repudiation of Qing authority, and adopted the Muslim name and title "Sultan Sulayman".^{[citation needed]} The Sultanate, fashioned after those in the Middle East, survived in Yunnan for over ten years, reaching its heights in 1860. Panthay governorships were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein (Tengchong), close to the Burmese border town of Bhamo.^{[citation needed]}

The Qing secretly hounded mobs on to the rich Panthays, provoked anti-Hui riots and instigated destruction of their mosques.^[19] The Panthays repulsed the desultory attacks and took town after town.^[19] The ancient holy city of Dali fell to the Panthays in 1857. With the capture of Dali, Muslim supremacy became an established fact in Yunnan.^{[citation needed]}

During this period, the Sultan Suleiman, on his way to Mecca as a pilgrim, visited Rangoon, presumably via the Kengtung. From there he went to Calcutta where he had a chance to see the power of the British colonists.^[20] He had also started a company in Mandalay, housed in a one-story brick building located at the present-day Taryedan on the west side of the 80th Street, between 36th and 37th Streets.^[21] The hao had been carrying on business in precious stones, jades, cotton, silk and other commodities of both Chinese and Burmese origins.

The Panthay power declined after 1868. The Chinese Imperial Government had succeeded in reinvigorating itself. By 1871, it launched a campaign for the annihilation of the Panthays. Quickly, towns fell and Sultan Suleiman found himself caged in by the walls of his capital. He turned to the British colonists for military assistance, but was unsuccessful.^[22] Seeing no escape, Sultan Suleiman tried to take his own life before the fall of Dali, but was beheaded before the poison could take effect. The Sultan's head was preserved in honey and sent to the Imperial Court as a trophy of their decisive victory.^[23]

Exodus[edit]

The scattered remnants of the Panthay troops continue their resistance after the fall of Dali. But when Momien was next besieged and stormed by the imperial troops in May 1873, their resistance broke completely. Many adherents to the Panthay cause were persecuted by the Qing. Many Panthays fled with their families across the Burmese border and took refuge in the Wa State where, they set up the exclusively Panthay town of Panglong in 1875.^[24]

The demise of the Sultanate had shattered the hope of all their own Islamic kingdom in Yunnan. For a period of perhaps ten to fifteen years following the collapse, the province's Hui minority was widely discriminated against. During these years, Hui refugees settled across the frontier within Burma gradually established themselves in their traditional callings – as merchants, caravaneers, miners, restaurateurs as well as some smugglers and mercenaries. 15 years after the fall of the Sultanate, the original Panthay settlements had grown to include numbers of Shan and other hill peoples.^{[citation needed]}

Mandalay[edit]

Colonel Mah Too-tu found himself in the same situation. When the Sultanate fell, Mah Too-tu was stranded at Mandalay. For a man of his rank and stature, going back to Dali meant sure execution by the Qing authorities. In November 1868, he bought a plot of land with a house on it for 80 pieces of one-kyat coins from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess.^[25] On 7 June 1873, Mah Too-tu married Shwe Gwe, a lady from Sagyin-wa village near Amarapura, who happened to be the daughter of a princess of Manipur brought to Mandalay as a captive by the Burmese king.^[26] Mah Too-tu spent the last years of his life at the Panthay Compound with his Burmese wife.^{[citation needed]}

After the mass exodus from Yunnan, the number of Panthays residing in Mandalay gradually increased. The new arrivals, usually families, came by way of Bhamo or via the Wa State. When the land for the Panthays was granted by King Mindon, there were a few houses on it, in addition to several old graves.^[27] The place had been an abandoned graveyard. In the years immediately following the completion of the mosque, there were less than twenty houses in the Panthay Compound. There were also between ten and twenty Panthay households living in other parts of Mandalay. ^{[citation needed]}

The establishment of the Panthay Mosque in 1868 marked the emergence of the Panthays as a distinct community in Mandalay. Although the number of this first generation of Panthays remained small, the mosque signified the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in Mandalay Ratanabon Naypyidaw.^{[citation needed]}

Panlong[edit]

Over the next thirty years or so, the Panthays of Panlong in Wa State continued to prosper. By the early 1920s, a feud had developed between them and the Wa in neighbouring Pangkham. In 1926, this erupted into the local "Wa-Panthay War". The Panthay emerged victorious and Panlong threw off its vassalage to Pangkham and reinforced its dominance over trade in the area.

In addition to legitimate trading, the Panthays of Panlong also became known as 'the aristocrats of the opium business' in the region now known as the Golden Triangle. The Panthay left the risky business of peddling this highly profitable commodity locally to Shan and Han Chinese dealers. Instead, they ran large, well-armed caravans in long-distance convoys far into Siam, Laos, Tonkin and Yunnan. Each muleload was guarded by two rifles.

When Harvey visited Panlong in 1931 he found that Panthay numbers had risen to 5,000 ('including local recruits') and that they were financed by Singaporean Chinese, had 130 Mauser rifles with 1,500 mules, and exported opium by the hundredweight into French, Siamese and British territory. In contrast to Harvey's estimate, official estimates put the Panthay population of Burma at 2,202 for 1911 (1,427 males and 775 females), whilst by the 1921 Census of India this had declined to 1,517 (1,076 males and 441 females), and by 1931 to 1,106 (685 males and 421 females).

British Burma[edit]

Other Panthays moved further into Burma, initially as miners anxious to exploit the ruby mines of Mogok; the Baldwin silver mines of Namtu in the Northern Shan State, the jade mines of Mogaung in Kachin State. Numbers of Panthay restaurateurs and innkeepers, merchants and traders settled in the urban centres of upland Burma – chiefly at Lashio, Kengtung, Bhamo and Taunggyi – to service the needs of these miners, passing caravaneers and local inhabitants. Other settlements largely devoted to trade with the indigenous Shan and Karen populations sprang up along the Salween River. Some moved to major urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, most notably to Mandalay and Rangoon, where they flourished as merchants and middle-men representatives of Panlong and the other "Overland Chinese" settlements of Upper Burma and the "Overseas Chinese" community of the lowland port-cities. Bassein and Moulmein must also have attracted some Panthay settlement, the latter port being a terminus of the overland caravan trade from Yunnan in its own right, via the northern Thai trade route through Kengtung, Chiang Mai and Mae Sariang.

During most of the British rule in Burma these Panthay settlers flourished, specialising in all levels of commerce from the international gem markets to shop and inn-keeping, mule-breeding and peddling or street hawking. Yunnanese peddlars penetrated into the unadministered and inaccessible hill tracts of "The Triangle" between the Mali Hka and Nmai Hka rivers, to the north of Myitkyina. Beyond the urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, the Panthays continued their involvement in the caravan trade with Yunnan, transporting silk, tea, metal goods and foods from China to Burma, and carrying back European manufactured goods like broadcloths, specialized food and, above all, raw cotton, to Yunnan.

World War II and independence[edit]

The traditional dominance of Panthay in the trade of the Burma-Yunnan frontier region was set back by the construction of the Burma Road between Lashio and Kunming in 1937–38.^{[citation needed]}

During World War II, the main Panthay settlement at Panglong was destroyed in 1941 by the Japanese invasion of Burma. Many Panthay fled to Yunnan, or crossed the jungle frontiers into Thailand and Laos to escape Japanese persecution.^[28] The Japanese destroyed Panglong, burning it and driving out the over 200 Hui households out as refugees to Yunnan and Kokang.^[29]

Ma Guanggui, a Hui, became the leader of the Hui Panlong self defense guard. The guard was created by the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China to fight against the Japanese invasion of Panlong in 1942. ^[29] An account of the Japanese attack in Panlong was written and published in 1998 in the "Panglong Booklet".^[29]

The exodus of thousands of Yunnanese refugees and Kuomintang troops following the seizure of power by the Chinese Communists in 1949. As a result of these developments, which brought a flood of predominantly Han, and not Hui, "Overland Chinese" to the Burmese Shan States, many Panthay seem to have chosen to migrate to northern Thailand, where their communities continue to flourish.

References[edit]

^ (Scott, 1900, 607)
^ (Yule & Burnell, 1968, 669)
^ William John Gill (1883). The River of golden sand, condensed by E.C. Baber, ed. by H. Yule. p. 251. ISBN 0-582-80671-2. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
^ "The Hui Ethnic Group". China.org.cn. Retrieved 17 August 2018.
^ Notar, Beth (2001). "Du Wenxiu and the Politics of the Muslim Past". Twentieth-Century China. 26 (2). doi:10.1179/tcc.2001.26.2.64.
^ Message from Maung Ko Ghaffari, Chief Editor, Light of Islam Magazine, Burma in Feb. 2007
^ Hooker, Michael Barry (1 January 1983). Islam in South-East Asia. Brill Archive. ISBN 9004068449. Retrieved 17 August 2018 – via Google Books.
^ (Forbes, 1987, 292)
^ (Anderson, 1876, 4)
^ (Forbes 1987, 293)
^ Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (2005). The mists of Rāmañña: the Legend that was Lower Burma. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8248-2886-0.
^ Biran, Michal (2001). "Qarakhanid Studies". Cahiers d'Asie centrale. 9: 77–89. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
^ (Ba Shin, 1961, 2)
^ (Interview with U Aung Myint)
^ "杜文秀" [Du Wenxiu]. www.shijiemingren.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 31 Mar 2017.}
^ Atwill, David G. (2005). The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856-1873. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-5159-5.
^ Fytche, Albert (1878). Burma past and present. LONDON: C. K. Paul & co. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
^ Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 283. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
^ ^a ^b (Anderson, 1876, 233)
^ (Anderson, 1876, 242)
^ (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi alias Haji Adam (born 11 October 1908) a Panthay elder who had served for many years as chairman of the Trust of 'the Panthay Mosque, on 15 October 1997.)
^ (Thaung, 1961, 481)
^ (Thaung, 1961, 482)
^ (Scott, 1901, 740)
^ (Family Parabaik)
^ (Than Tun, 1968, 19)
^ (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi)
^ Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (December 2015). "'Saharat Tai Doem' Thailand in Shan State, 1941–45". CPA Media.
^ ^a ^b ^c Wen-Chin Chang (16 January 2015). Beyond Borders: Stories of Yunnanese Chinese Migrants of Burma. Cornell University Press. pp. 122–180. ISBN 978-0-8014-5450-9.

External links[edit]

Media related to Panthays at Wikimedia Commons
Priestly, Harry (January 2006). "The Outsiders". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 2006-11-27. Retrieved 2006-07-07.

[1] (Scott, 1900, 607)

[2] (Yule & Burnell, 1968, 669)

[3] William John Gill (1883). The River of golden sand, condensed by E.C. Baber, ed. by H. Yule. p. 251. ISBN 0-582-80671-2. Retrieved 2011-01-11.

[4] "The Hui Ethnic Group". China.org.cn. Retrieved 17 August 2018.

[5] Notar, Beth (2001). "Du Wenxiu and the Politics of the Muslim Past". Twentieth-Century China. 26 (2). doi:10.1179/tcc.2001.26.2.64.

[6] Message from Maung Ko Ghaffari, Chief Editor, Light of Islam Magazine, Burma in Feb. 2007

[7] Hooker, Michael Barry (1 January 1983). Islam in South-East Asia. Brill Archive. ISBN 9004068449. Retrieved 17 August 2018 – via Google Books.

[8] (Forbes, 1987, 292)

[9] (Anderson, 1876, 4)

[10] (Forbes 1987, 293)

[11] Aung-Thwin, Michael A. (2005). The mists of Rāmañña: the Legend that was Lower Burma. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8248-2886-0.

[12] Biran, Michal (2001). "Qarakhanid Studies". Cahiers d'Asie centrale. 9: 77–89. Retrieved 13 June 2015.

[13] (Ba Shin, 1961, 2)

[14] (Interview with U Aung Myint)

[15] "杜文秀" [Du Wenxiu]. www.shijiemingren.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 31 Mar 2017.}

[16] Atwill, David G. (2005). The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856-1873. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-5159-5.

[17] Fytche, Albert (1878). Burma past and present. LONDON: C. K. Paul & co. Retrieved 28 June 2010.

[18] Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (2002). The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture. Routledge. p. 283. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5. Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[Anderson,_1876,_233-19] (Anderson, 1876, 233)

[20] (Anderson, 1876, 242)

[21] (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi alias Haji Adam (born 11 October 1908) a Panthay elder who had served for many years as chairman of the Trust of 'the Panthay Mosque, on 15 October 1997.)

[Thaung,_1961,_481-22] (Thaung, 1961, 481)

[23] (Thaung, 1961, 482)

[24] (Scott, 1901, 740)

[25] (Family Parabaik)

[26] (Than Tun, 1968, 19)

[27] (Interview with Haji U Ba Thi)

[28] Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (December 2015). "'Saharat Tai Doem' Thailand in Shan State, 1941–45". CPA Media.

[Chang2015-29] Wen-Chin Chang (16 January 2015). Beyond Borders: Stories of Yunnanese Chinese Migrants of Burma. Cornell University Press. pp. 122–180. ISBN 978-0-8014-5450-9.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|Chinese Muslim Hui people in Myanmar}}{{Multiple issues|
+{{Short description|Chinese Muslim Hui people in Myanmar}}
 {{More citations needed|date=August 2014}}
-{{Tone|date=August 2009}}}}
 {{Infobox ethnic group
 | group            = Panthay
@@ Line 16: / Line 15: @@
 | languages        =
 | religions        = [[Islam]]
-| related_groups   = [[Hui people]]
+| related_groups   = [[Hui people]], [[Chin Haw]], [[Dungan people|Dungan]]
 | footnotes        =
 }}
-'''Panthays''' ({{MYname|MY=ပန်းသေးလူမျိုး|MLCTS=pan: se: lu myui:}}; {{lang-zh|c=潘泰人}}) form a group of [[Islam in China|Chinese Muslims]] in [[Myanmar]]. Panthays are one of the oldest group of [[Islam in Myanmar|Muslims in Burma]]. The exact proportion of the Chinese Muslim group in the local Chinese population remains unknown due to a lack of data. However, they are concentrated particularly in the northern part of Myanmar- closer to [[Yunnan]], China from where the Panthays historically originated. They particularly reside in the [[Tangyan, Myanmar|Tangyan]]-[[Maymyo]]-[[Mandalay]]-[[Mogok]]-[[Taunggyi]] area and the [[Shan States]]{{cn|date=July 2023}}
+'''Panthays''' ({{MYname|MY=ပန်းသေးလူမျိုး|MLCTS=pan: se: lu myui:}}; {{lang-zh|c=潘泰人}}) are [[Hui People|Chinese Muslims]] in [[Myanmar]]. Panthays are one of the oldest groups of [[Islam in Myanmar|Muslims in Burma]]. The exact proportion of the Chinese Muslim group in the local Chinese population remains unknown due to a lack of data. However, they are concentrated particularly in the northern part of Myanmar, closer to [[Yunnan|Yunnan, China]] from where the Panthays historically originated. They particularly reside in the towns of [[Tangyan, Myanmar|Tangyan]], [[Pyin Oo Lwin|Maymyo]], [[Mogok]], and [[Taunggyi]] in [[Mandalay Region|Mandalay]] and [[Shan State]].
 ==Etymology==
 The name ''Panthay'' is a [[Burmese language|Burmese]] word, which is said to be identical with the [[Shan language|Shan]] word ''Pang hse''.<ref>(Scott, 1900, 607)</ref> It was the name by which the Burmese refer to Chinese Muslims who came with caravans to Burma from the Chinese province of [[Yunnan]]. The name was not used or known in Yunnan itself.<ref>(Yule & Burnell, 1968, 669)</ref> The predominant Muslim ethnic group living in Yunnan are the Hui ({{lang-zh|c=回族}}) and identify as Hui or Huihui ({{zh|回回}}), but never as Panthay.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RQIAAAAQAAJ&q=hui+circumcision&pg=PA251|title=The River of golden sand, condensed by E.C. Baber, ed. by H. Yule|author=William John Gill|year=1883|page=251|isbn=0-582-80671-2|access-date=2011-01-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/EthnicGroups/136917.htm|title=The Hui Ethnic Group|website=China.org.cn|access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref> Notably, the [[Panthay Rebellion]] in Yunnan during the mid 19th century is called in Chinese as either the Du Wenxiu Rebellion or the Pingnan Kingdom.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Du Wenxiu and the Politics of the Muslim Past |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/tcc.2001.26.2.64?journalCode=ytcc20 |doi=10.1179/tcc.2001.26.2.64 |journal=Twentieth-Century China |volume=26 |date=2001 |issue=2 |language=en |last=Notar |first=Beth}}</ref>
-Several theories are suggested as to its derivation, but none is strong enough to refute the others. The Burmese of Old Burma called their own indigenous Muslims ''[[Pathi]]'', a word deriving from [[Persian language|Persian]]. It was applied to all Muslims other than the Chinese Muslims. The term "Panthay" being used for Yunnanese Muslims dates from about this time; it was widely used by British travelers and diplomats in the region from about 1875.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
+Several theories are suggested as to its derivation, but none is strong enough to refute the others. The Burmese of Old Burma called their own indigenous Muslims ''[[Islam_in_Myanmar|Pathi]]'', a word deriving from [[Persian language|Persian]]. It was applied to all Muslims other than the Chinese Muslims. The term "Panthay" being used for Yunnanese Muslims dates from about this time; it was widely used by British travelers and diplomats in the region from about 1875.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
 One other theory is that ''Panthay'' is shortened version of the Burmese phrase "Tarup Pase", meaning Chinese Muslim. This was then [[Anglicisation|anglicised]] by [[Edward Bosc Sladen|Sladen]] in his 1868 expedition to [[Dengyue]], Yunnan. The term ''Panthay'' achieved widespread usage during the period of [[British Burma|British rule]], and remains the name by which Myanmar's Chinese Muslim community has generally been distinguished in English language sources to this day.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
 ==Culture==
+[[File:Panthay khauk swe.JPG|thumb|right|Panthay [[Khauk swè]], a fried noodle dish in Myanmar]]
 [[File:Panthay mosque, Mandalay, Myanmar.JPG|thumb|right|220px|Panthay mosque, Mandalay]]
 During the [[Panthay Rebellion]], [[Du Wenxiu|Sultan Suleiman]] (Du Wenxiu) was eager to establish close and friendly relations neighboring states. He took the opportunity to have a Chinese Muslim mosque installed at the Burmese King's capital. He sent Colonel Mah Too-tu, one of his senior military officers, as his special envoy and agent to [[Mandalay]] with the important mission. The mosque took about two years to finish and was opened in 1868 as the second mosque to be built in the royal capital. Today, 134 years later, the Panthay Mosque is still standing as the second oldest mosque in Mandalay. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929185220/http://www.panthay.net/gallery/main.php?g2_itemId=19174]
+No comprehensive census of the remaining Panthay population within [[Burma]] has been taken since 1931 as the 1941 census was cancelled. Restrictions on travel for foreigners, combined with the weak central government control over outlying areas of the Shan and Kachin Hills where many Panthays live, made attempts to calculate the Panthay population almost impossible in 1980. An estimate of 100,000 Panthays resident within Burma appeared in the Burmese daily ''Hanthawaddi'' in 1960.{{cn|date=July 2023}}.
-Panthays are spread over many parts of Burma with their mosques in Yangon, Taungyi, Lashio, Tangyang, Kyaington, Pyin-Oo-Lwin, Myitkyina Mogok and Muse.<ref>Message from Maung Ko Ghaffari, Chief Editor, Light of Islam Magazine, Burma in Feb. 2007</ref>
+Readily identifiable Panthay communities continue to exist in several areas like [[Yangon]], [[Mandalay]], [[Taunggyi]]. Ny report, the Panthays have communities in [[Kengtung]], [[Bhamo]], [[Mogok]], [[Lashio]], [[Pyin-Oo-Lwin]] and at Tanyan, near Lashio.<ref>Message from Maung Ko Ghaffari, Chief Editor, Light of Islam Magazine, Burma in Feb. 2007</ref> Wherever they have settled in sufficient numbers, the Panthays have established their own [[mosques]] and [[madrasas]]. Some of these mosques are in "pseudo-Moghul" style, clearly having been influenced by [[Indian Muslim]] tastes and styles, whilst others (notably at Mandalay) have Chinese architectural features.
+As with the [[Hui people|Hui]] in China, the Burmese Panthay are exclusively Muslims adhering to the [[Hanafi school of thought]]. Few are conversant with more than the most elementary phrases of [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and quite often when a Panthay [[imam]] is not available to care for the spiritual welfare of a community, a South Asian and [[Islam in Myanmar|Zerbadi Muslim]] is engaged instead. The Zerbadi are descendent community of intermarriages between foreign [[Muslim]] ([[South Asia|South Asian]] and [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]]) males and Burmese females.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wNYUAAAAIAAJ&q=Zerbadi+Muslim&pg=PA168|title=Islam in South-East Asia|first=Michael Barry|last=Hooker|date=1 January 1983|publisher=Brill Archive|access-date=17 August 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9004068449}}</ref>
+===Panthay caravaners===
+In the pre-colonial times the Panthays emerged as excellent long-distance caravaneers of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They virtually dominated whole caravan trade of [[Yunnan]] by the time the first pioneers of French and British imperialism arrived in Yunnan. By the mid 19th century the caravans of Yunnanese traders ranged over an area extending from the eastern frontiers of Tibet, through Assam, Burma, [[Thailand]], [[Laos]] and [[Tongkin]] (presently part of Vietnam), to the southern Chinese provinces of [[Sichuan]], [[Guizhou]] and [[Guangxi]]. The Chinese Muslim domination of the Yunnan caravan network continued well into the 20th century.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
+The Chinese Muslims of Yunnan were noted for their mercantile prowess. Within Yunnan, the Muslim population excelled as merchants and soldiers, the two qualities, which made them ideally suited to the rigors of overland trade in the rugged, mountainous regions, and to deserve the rewards therefrom. They might have been helped in this by their religion of [[Islam]] from its inception had flourished as a [[Religion]] of Trade. The religious requirement to perform [[Hajj]] pilgrimage had also helped them to establish an overland road between Yunnan and Arabia as early as the first half of the 14th century.<ref>(Forbes, 1987, 292)</ref>
+The merchandise brought from Yunnan by the Panthay caravaneers included [[silk]], tea, metal utensils, iron in the rough, felts, finished articles of clothing, walnuts, opium, wax, preserved fruits and foods, and dried meat of several kinds. The Burmese goods taken back to Yunnan were raw cotton, raw and wrought silk, amber, jades and other precious stones, velvets, betel-nuts, tobacco, [[gold-leaf]], preserves, paper, dye woods, stick lac, [[ivory]], and specialized foodstuffs such as slugs, [[edible bird's nest]], among other things.<ref>(Anderson, 1876, 4)</ref> Raw [[cotton]], which was reserved as a [[royal monopoly]], was in great demand in China. An extensive trade in this commodity had existed between the [[Konbaung dynasty]] and Yunnan. Goods were transported up the [[Ayeyarwady River]] to [[Bhamo]] where it was sold to the Chinese merchants, and conveyed partly by land and partly by water into Yunnan, and from there to other provinces of China. Most caravans consisted of between fifty and one hundred mules, employing ten to fifteen drivers.<ref>(Forbes 1987, 293)</ref>
 ==History==
@@ Line 47: / Line 58: @@
 Within Yunnan, the Hui Muslim population flourished throughout the Yuan and Ming periods. In the early Yuan dynasty, [[Marco Polo]] noted the presence of "Saracens" amongst the population during his visit. The Persian historian [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]] similarly recorded in the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'' that "the great city of Yachi" in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Dali, which was the earliest centre of Hui settlement in Yunnan.
+===Panthays during Konbaung period===
-===Panthay rebellion===
+[[File:Panthay mosque.JPG|thumb|Panthay Mosque ({{lang|zh|清真寺}}; Qīngzhēn Sì) in Mandalay]]
-{{Main|Panthay Rebellion}}
+In the 19th century, during the [[Konbaung dynasty|Konbaung]] period, Panthays started to settle in the royal capital of Mandalay, particularly during the reign of [[Mindon Min|King Mindon]]. Although their number was small, a few found their way inside the court as [[jade]]-assessors. They lived side by side with [[Burmese Chinese|non-Muslim Chinese]] in Chinatowns ({{lang-my|တရုတ်တန်း}};''tayoke tan''), which had been designated by King Mindon as the residential area for the Chinese. The non-Muslim Chinese had started settling in considerably earlier. So by the arrival of the Panthays, there already was a Chinese community at Mandalay with its own bank, companies and warehouses and organized social and economic life.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-[[File:Capture of Shunning, Yunnan.jpg|thumb|Capture of [[Shunning]] during the Panthay Rebellion]]
+It happened that there were also already Chinese jade-assessors in the employ of the king. Rivalry between the Chinese and Panthay jade-assessors in courting the royal favor naturally led to a quarrel between the two groups, resulting in a number of deaths.<ref>(Interview with U Aung Myint)</ref> King Mindon did not give much serious thought to the religious and social differences between the Panthays and the Chinese. But after the Chinatown quarrel, the king began to see the wisdom of separating the two groups.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-During the first decades of the 19th century, population pressures on the Hui Muslim and other minority peoples of Yunnan increased substantially as a result of Han Chinese migration to the province. Resentment against this development, coupled with mounting hostility towards Qing rule, led in 1855 to the [[Panthay Rebellion]] among Muslim miners in the Qianshui region. Within two years, however, the center of rebellion had spread to the west of the province under the leadership of [[Du Wenxiu]]. For the next fifteen years, until the Qing reconquest, Dali remained the capital of the "Country of the peaceful South", where Du erected a Forbidden City, wore Ming [[hanfu]] in repudiation of Qing authority, and is reported by some sources to have adopted the Muslim name and title "Sultan Sulayman".
+King Mindon granted the Panthays of the royal capital land on which to settle as a separate community. The goal being to preventing further quarrels between them and the Chinese. The Panthays were given the rare favor of choosing their own place of residence within the confines of the royal capital, and they chose the site on which the present-day Panthay Compound is located. It was bounded on the north by 35th Street, in the south by 36th Street, in the east by 79th Street and in the west by 80th Street. This site was chosen because it was the camping ground for the mule caravans from Yunnan, which regularly came to the capital via the [[Hsenwi]] route.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-Several uprisings involving Hui and Han such as the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–77)]] and the Panthay Rebellion broke out in several regions of China. The unfavorable discrimination with which the Hui were treated by the Han and by the imperial administration was at the root of their rebellions. The Panthay Rebellion began out of a conflict between Han and Hui tin miners in 1853, which degenerated into rebellion. In the following year, a massacre of Hui was organized by local Qing officials in Yunnan responsible for suppressing the revolt. One of the leaders of the insurrection was the scholar [[Yusuf Ma Dexin]]. Anxious to increase his own influence, Yusuf Ma Dexin finally agreed to submit to the Qing in 1861.<ref name=chineseciv>{{cite book|last1=Gernet|first1=Jacques|title=A history of Chinese civilization|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-49712-4|edition=2. ed., repr.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern}}</ref> He was succeeded by [[Du Wenxiu]] ({{zh|t=杜文秀|p=Dù Wénxiù}}, 1823–72), a Hui born in [[Yongcheng]]. Du Wenxiu's father was a Han who converted to Islam.
+The King also permitted a mosque to be built on the granted site so that the Panthays would have their own place of worship. Having no funds for an undertaking of such magnitude, the Panthays of Mandalay put up the matter to the [[Panthay Rebellion|Sultan of Yunnan]]. Sultan Sulaiman had already started a business enterprise (''hao'') in Mandalay and was happy to take the opportunity.
-Starting from 1855 the Hui of Yunnan had risen against the oppression to which they were subjected by the mandarins. They rose against the tyranny and extortion universally practiced by this official class, from which they were excluded. The mandarins had secretly hounded mobs on to the rich Panthays, provoked anti-Hui riots and instigated destruction of their mosques.<ref name="Anderson, 1876, 233">(Anderson, 1876, 233)</ref> The revolt was not religious in nature, since the Muslims were joined by non-Muslim [[Shan people|Shan]] and [[Kachin people]] and other hill tribes in the revolt.<ref name="fytche_300">{{harvnb|Fytche|1878|p=300}}</ref> A British officer testified that the Muslims did not rebel for religious reasons and that the Chinese were tolerant of different religions and were unlikely to have caused the revolt by interfering with the practicing of Islam.<ref name="fytche_301">{{harvnb|Fytche|1878|p=301}}</ref>  In addition, loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing crush the rebel Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&q=yunnan+rebellion+loyalist&pg=PA283|title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture|author=Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|page=283|isbn=0-7007-1762-5|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref>
+===Panthay rebellion===
-The rebellion started as a local uprising. It was sparked off by the Panthay laborers of the silver mines of Lin'an village in Yunnan who rose up against the Qing. The Chinese Governor of Yunnan sent an urgent appeal to the central government in Beijing. The Imperial Government was handicapped by problems that cropped up in profusion in various parts of the sprawling empire.
+{{Main|Panthay Rebellion}}
+[[File:Seal of Du Wenxiu of Pingnan Guo (1864-1873).svg|thumb|Seal of Du Wenxiu of the Pingnan Kingdom (1864-1873)]]
+According to Ming Guangshi's book ''Panthay History'', the Panthay originate from the families of some loyal lieutenants of the self-proclaimed Sultan of Yunnan - the Hui General [[Du Wenxiu]] ({{lang-zh|c=杜文秀}}). These families fled to [[Wa State]] in northern [[Shan State]] after the failure of the [[Panthay Rebellion]] under the leadership of Ma Lin-Gi ({{lang-zh|t=馬靈驥}}). Ma Lin-Gi divorced his wife of surname Yuan and married a widow of surname Ting. They later had two sons, the elder named Mah Mei-Ting (馬美廷) born in 1878 and the second son named Mah Shen-Ting (馬陞廷) born in 1879. The older son later became the leader of the Panthay community in Myanmar.
-They repulsed the desultory attacks of the imperial troops. They wrested one important city after another from the hands of' the Imperial mandarins. The Chinese towns and villages which resisters were pillaged, and the male population massacred. All the places, which yielded, were spared.<ref name="Anderson, 1876, 233"/> The ancient holy city of Dali fell to the Panthays in 1857. With the capture of Dali, Muslim supremacy became an established fact in Yunnan.
+During early 19th century, the Hui Muslim and other minority peoples of Yunnan faced increased population pressures as a result of Han Chinese migration to the province. Resentment against this development, coupled with mounting hostility towards [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] rule, led to the [[Panthay Rebellion]] in 1855. Muslim miners in the [[Jianshui County|Jianshui]] region were the starting point of the rebellion. Within two years, the center of rebellion had spread to westwards under the leadership of [[Du Wenxiu]]. Du was a Hui born in [[Yongcheng]]. Du Wenxiu's father was a Han who converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shijiemingren.com/doc-view-27181.html |title=杜文秀 |language=zh |trans-title=Du Wenxiu |website=www.shijiemingren.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417235942/http://www.shijiemingren.com/doc-view-27181.html |archive-date=17 April 2017 |access-date=31 Mar 2017}}}</ref>
-Du Wenxiu was originally not aiming his rebellion at Han, but was anti-Qing and wanted to destroy the Manchu government. During the revolt Hui from provinces which were not in rebellion, like Sichuan and Zhejiang, served as negotiators between rebel Hui and the Qing government. One of Du Wenxiu's banners said "Deprive the Manchu Qing of their Mandate to Rule" (革命滿清), and he called on Han to assist Hui to overthrow the Manchu regime and drive them out of China.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwuSpFiOFfYC&q=du+wenxiu+han&pg=PA59|title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects|author=Michael Dillon|year=1999|publisher=Curzon Press|location=Richmond|page=59|isbn=0-7007-1026-4|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Da2M_viEclEC&q=du+wenxiu+anti+han&pg=PA139|title=The Chinese sultanate: Islam, ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in southwest China, 1856-1873|author=David G. Atwill|year=2005|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=139|isbn=0-8047-5159-5|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> Du's forces led multiple non-Muslim forces, including Han-Chinese, Li, Bai, and Hani.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEW6AAAAIAAJ&q=The+great+Yunnan+uprising,+launched+by+Du+Wenxiu+in+conjunction+with+members+of+the+Han,+Li,+Bai,+Hani|title=Chinese studies in philosophy, Volume 28|author=International Arts and Sciences Press, M.E. Sharpe, Inc|year=1997|publisher=M. E. Sharpe|page=67|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> Du Wenxiu also called for unity between Muslim Hui and Han. He was quoted as saying "our army has three tasks: to drive out the Manchus, unite with the Chinese, and drive out traitors."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4geGAAAAIAAJ&q=Du+Wen-xiu+went+on+with+the+struggle+and+held+his+own+against+the+Manchu+armies+for+more+than+twelve+years.+His+troops+were+reinforced+by+Miao+and+Yi+aborigines,+by+numerous+peasants,+and+by+units+of+women+led+by+his+own+daughter|title=China from the opium wars to the 1911 revolution|author1=Jean Chesneaux |author2=Marianne Bastid |author3=Marie-Claire Bergère |year=1976|publisher=Pantheon Books|isbn=0-394-49213-7|page=114|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> Du Wenxiu did not blame Han, but blamed the tensions on the Manchu regime, saying that they were foreign to China and alienated the Chinese and other minorities.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MtTXAAAAMAAJ&q=identification+of+the+root+of+the+Hui+genocide+with+the+Yunnan+Han,+Du+Wenxiu+attributed+it+to+the+alien+Manchu+ruler+who+refused+to+be+a+%5BHui%5D+min+subject+of+the+Qing+and+tried+to+establish+a+new+regime+for+people+of+different|title=The American journal of Islamic social sciences, Volume 23, Issues 3-4|author=Association of Muslim Social Scientists, International Institute of Islamic Thought|year=2006|publisher=AJISS|page=110|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> Du Wenxiu also called for the complete expulsion of Manchus from all of China in order for China to once again come under Chinese rule.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Da2M_viEclEC&q=du+wenxiu+manchu&pg=PA120|title=The Chinese sultanate: Islam, ethnicity, and the Panthay Rebellion in southwest China, 1856-1873|author=David G. Atwill|year=2005|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=0-8047-5159-5|page=120|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> Total war was waged against Manchu rule. Du Wenxiu refused to surrender, unlike the other rebel Muslim commander, [[Ma Rulong (Qing general)|Ma Rulong]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCJuAAAAMAAJ&q=While+Ma+soon+surrendered+to+the+Qing+dynasty,+Du+chose+to+fight,+and+as+a+result+became+a+Muslim+hero+for+waging+an+all-out+war+of+resistance+against+Manchu+oppression.+Du+Wenxiu+was+born+in+the+village+of+Jinji+in+Baoshan+ft+ill|title=Asian research trends, Volumes 3-4|author=Yunesuko Higashi Ajia Bunka Kenkyū Sentā (Tokyo, Japan)|year=1993|publisher=Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies|page=137|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> This may have had something to do with the sects of Islam practiced among the rebels. The [[Gedimu]] Hanafi Sunni Muslims under Ma Rulong readily defected to Qing, while the [[Jahriyya]] [[Sufi]] Muslims did not surrender. Some of the Jahriyya rebels in the Panthay Rebellion like Ma Shenglin were related to the Dungan revolt Jahriyya leader [[Ma Hualong]] and maintained contact with them.
+The unfavorable discrimination with which the Hui were treated was at the root of their rebellions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Atwill |first=David G. |title=The Chinese Sultanate: Islam, Ethnicity and the Panthay Rebellion in Southwest China, 1856-1873 |year=2005 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-5159-5 }}</ref> However, the revolt was not religious in nature, since the Muslims were joined by non-Muslim [[Shan people|Shan]] and [[Kakhyen people|Kakhyen]] groups.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K28oAAAAYAAJ |last=Fytche |first=Albert |title=Burma past and present |year=1878 |publisher=C. K. Paul & co. |location=LONDON |access-date=28 June 2010 }}</ref> In addition, loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing crush the rebel Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&q=yunnan+rebellion+loyalist&pg=PA283|title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture|author=Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|page=283|isbn=0-7007-1762-5|access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref>
-The "Islamic Kingdom of Yunnan" was proclaimed after the fall of Tali-fu ([[Dali City]]). Du Wenxiu, leader of the Panthays, assumed the regnal title of Sultan Suleiman and made Tali-fu his capital. In this way, the Sultanate, fashioned after those of' the Middle East, appeared in Yunnan. Panthay governorships were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein (Tengyueh), which were a few stages from the Burmese border town of Bhamo. The Panthays reached the highwater mark of their power and glory in 1860.
+For the next fifteen years, until the Qing reconquest, Dali remained the capital of the self-proclaimed Pingnan Kingdom, "Country of the peaceful South", proclaimed as an "Islamic Kingdom of Yunnan". Du erected a Forbidden City, wore Ming [[hanfu]] in repudiation of Qing authority, and adopted the Muslim name and title "Sultan Sulayman".{{cn|date=July 2023}} The Sultanate, fashioned after those in the Middle East, survived in Yunnan for over ten years, reaching its heights in 1860. Panthay governorships were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein ([[Tengchong]]), close to the Burmese border town of [[Bhamo]].{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-The eight years from 1860 to 1868 were the heyday of the Sultanate. The Panthays had either taken or destroyed forty towns and one hundred villages.<ref>(Anderson, 1876, 343)</ref> During this period the Sultan Suleiman, on his way to Mecca as a pilgrim, visited Rangoon, presumably via the Kengtung route, and from there to Calcutta where he had a chance to see the power of the British colonists.<ref>(Anderson, 1876, 242)</ref>
+[[File:Capture of Shunning, Yunnan.jpg|thumb|Capture of [[Shunning]] during the Panthay Rebellion]]
-The Panthay power declined after 1868. The Chinese Imperial Government had succeeded in reinvigorating itself. By 1871, it was directing a campaign for the annihilation of the obdurate Panthays of Yunnan. By degrees the Imperial Government had tightened the cordon around the Panthays. The Panthay Kingdom proved unstable as soon as the Imperial Government made a regular and determined attack on it. Town after town fell under well-organized attacks made by the imperial troops. Tali-fu itself was besieged by the imperial Chinese. Sultan Suleiman found himself caged in by the walls of his capital. He now desperately looked for outside help. He turned to the British colonists for military assistance.<ref name="Thaung, 1961, 481">(Thaung, 1961, 481)</ref> He imagined that only British military intervention could have saved the Panthays.
+The Qing secretly hounded mobs on to the rich Panthays, provoked anti-Hui riots and instigated destruction of their mosques.<ref name="Anderson, 1876, 233">(Anderson, 1876, 233)</ref> The Panthays repulsed the desultory attacks and took town after town.<ref name="Anderson, 1876, 233"/> The ancient holy city of Dali fell to the Panthays in 1857. With the capture of Dali, Muslim supremacy became an established fact in Yunnan.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
+During this period, the Sultan Suleiman, on his way to [[Mecca]] as a [[Hajj|pilgrim]], visited [[Rangoon]], presumably via the [[Kengtung]]. From there he went to [[Calcutta]] where he had a chance to see the power of the British colonists.<ref>(Anderson, 1876, 242)</ref> He had also started a company in Mandalay, housed in a one-story brick building located at the present-day Taryedan on the west side of the 80th Street, between 36th and 37th Streets.<ref>(Interview with Haji U Ba Thi alias Haji Adam (born 11 October 1908) a Panthay elder who had served for many years as chairman of the Trust of 'the Panthay Mosque, on 15 October 1997.)</ref> The ''hao'' had been carrying on business in precious stones, jades, cotton, silk and other commodities of both Chinese and Burmese origins.
-The Sultan had reasons for his turning to the British colonists for military aid. He had seen the British might in India on his pilgrimage to Mecca some years earlier, and was impressed by it. Britain was the only western power with whom the Sultanate was on friendly terms and had contacts with. The British authorities in India and British Burma had sent a mission led by Major Sladen to Momien from May to July 1868. The Sladen mission had stayed seven weeks at Momien. The main purpose of the mission was to revive the Ambassador Route between Bhamo and Yunnan and resuscitate border trade, which had almost ceased since 1855 mainly because of the Panthay rebellion.
+The Panthay power declined after 1868. The Chinese Imperial Government had succeeded in reinvigorating itself. By 1871, it launched a campaign for the annihilation of the Panthays. Quickly, towns fell and Sultan Suleiman found himself caged in by the walls of his capital. He turned to the British colonists for military assistance, but was unsuccessful.<ref name="Thaung, 1961, 481">(Thaung, 1961, 481)</ref> Seeing no escape, Sultan Suleiman tried to take his own life before the fall of Dali, but was beheaded before the poison could take effect. The Sultan's head was preserved in honey and sent to the Imperial Court as a trophy of their decisive victory.<ref>(Thaung, 1961, 482)</ref>
-Taking advantage of the friendly relations resulting from Sladen's visit, Sultan Suleiman now, in his fight for the survival of the Panthay Kingdom, turned to the British for the vitally, needed military assistance. In 1872 he sent his adopted son Prince Hassan, to England, with a personal letter to Queen Victoria, via Burma, requesting British military assistance. The Hassan Mission was accorded courtesy and hospitality in both British Burma and England. However, the British colonists refused to intervene militarily in Yunnan against Peking.<ref name="Thaung, 1961, 481"/> The mission was a failure. While Hassan and his party were abroad, Tali-fu was captured by the Imperial troops in January 1873.
+===Exodus===
-The Imperial Government had waged an all-out war against the Panthays with the help of French artillery experts.<ref name="Thaung, 1961, 481"/> Their modern equipment, trained personnel and numerical superiority were no match for the ill-equipped Panthays with no allies. Thus, in less than two decades of its rise, the power of the Panthays in Yunnan fell. But the Chinese suffered the loss of more than 20,000 lives in various fights.<ref>(Anderson, 1876, 243)</ref> Seeing no escape and no mercy from his relentless foe, Sultan Suleiman tried to take his own life before the fall of' Tali-fu. But, before the poison he drank took effect fully, he was beheaded by his enemies. The Sultan's head was preserved in honey and then dispatched to the Imperial Court in Peking as a trophy and a testimony to the decisive nature of the victory of the Imperial Chinese over the Pantliays of Yunnan.<ref>(Thaung, 1961, 482)</ref>
+{{see also|Wa States#History}}
+[[File:Wa States -IGI.jpg|thumb|[[Panlong Subtownship|Panglong]] in an early 20th century Imperial Gazetteer of India map section]]
+The scattered remnants of the Panthay troops continue their resistance after the fall of Dali. But when Momien was next besieged and stormed by the imperial troops in May 1873, their resistance broke completely. Many adherents to the Panthay cause were persecuted by the Qing. Many Panthays fled with their families across the Burmese border and took refuge in the [[Wa State]] where, they set up the exclusively Panthay town of [[Panlong Subtownship|Panglong]] in 1875.<ref>(Scott, 1901, 740)</ref>
+The demise of the Sultanate had shattered the hope of all their own [[Panthay Rebellion|Islamic kingdom in Yunnan]]. For a period of perhaps ten to fifteen years following the collapse, the province's Hui minority was widely discriminated against. During these years, Hui refugees settled across the frontier within Burma gradually established themselves in their traditional callings – as merchants, caravaneers, miners, restaurateurs as well as some smugglers and mercenaries. 15 years after the fall of the Sultanate, the original Panthay settlements had grown to include numbers of Shan and other hill peoples.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-The scattered remnants of the Panthay troops continue their resistance after the fall of Tali-fu. But when Momien was next besieged and stormed by the imperial troops in May 1873, their resistance broke completely. Governor Ta-sa-kon was captured and executed by the order of the Imperial Government.
+====Mandalay====
-Many adherents to the Panthay cause were persecuted by the imperial mandarins.  Many Panthays thus fled with their families across the Burmese border and took refuge in the Wa State where, about 1875, they set up the exclusively Panthay town of [[Panlong Subtownship|Panglong]].<ref>(Scott, 1901, 740)</ref>
+Colonel [[Mah Too-tu]] found himself in the same situation. When the Sultanate fell, Mah Too-tu was stranded at [[Mandalay]]. For a man of his rank and stature, going back to [[Dali City|Dali]] meant sure execution by the Qing authorities. In November 1868, he bought a plot of land with a house on it for 80 pieces of one-kyat coins from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess.<ref>(Family Parabaik)</ref> On 7 June 1873, Mah Too-tu married Shwe Gwe, a lady from Sagyin-wa village near [[Amarapura]], who happened to be the daughter of a princess of [[Manipur]] brought to Mandalay as a captive by the Burmese king.<ref>(Than Tun, 1968, 19)</ref> Mah Too-tu spent the last years of his life at the Panthay Compound with his Burmese wife.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
+After the mass exodus from Yunnan, the number of Panthays residing in Mandalay gradually increased. The new arrivals, usually families, came by way of [[Bhamo]] or via the [[Wa State]]. When the land for the Panthays was granted by [[Mindon Min|King Mindon]], there were a few houses on it, in addition to several old graves.<ref>(Interview with Haji U Ba Thi)</ref> The place had been an abandoned graveyard. In the years immediately following the completion of the mosque, there were less than twenty houses in the Panthay Compound. There were also between ten and twenty Panthay households living in other parts of Mandalay. {{cn|date=July 2023}}
-For a period of perhaps ten to fifteen years following the collapse of the Yunnan Muslim Rebellion, the province's Hui minority was widely discriminated against by the victorious Qing, especially in the western frontier districts contiguous with Burma. During these years the refugee Hui settled across the frontier within Burma gradually established themselves in their traditional callings – as merchants, caravaneers, miners, restaurateurs and (for those who chose or were forced to live beyond the law) as smugglers and mercenaries.
+The establishment of the Panthay Mosque in 1868 marked the emergence of the Panthays as a distinct community in Mandalay. Although the number of this first generation of Panthays remained small, the [[mosque]] signified the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in Mandalay Ratanabon Naypyidaw.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-At least 15 years after the collapse of the Yunnan Muslim Rebellion, the original Panthay settlements had grown to include numbers of Shan and other hill peoples.
+====Panlong====
-===Panthays during Konbaung period===
+{{see also|Panlong Subtownship}}
-[[File:Panthay men.jpg|thumb|Panthay men in British Burma.]]
+Over the next thirty years or so, the Panthays of [[Panlong Subtownship|Panlong]] in [[Wa State]] continued to prosper. By the early 1920s, a feud had developed between them and the Wa in neighbouring [[Pangkham]]. In 1926, this erupted into the local "Wa-Panthay War". The Panthay emerged victorious and Panlong threw off its vassalage to Pangkham and reinforced its dominance over trade in the area.
-Beginning from the late Konbaung period, the Panthays started to settle in the royal capital of Mandalay, particularly during the reign of King Mindon. Although their number was small, a few of them seemed to have found their way inside the court as jade-assessors. They lived side by side with non-Muslim Chinese at Chinatowns (''tayoke tan''), which had been designated by King Mindon as the residential area for the Chinese. The non-Muslim Chinese had started settling in Mandalay considerably earlier than the Panthays so that by the time the latter arrived, there already was a Chinese community at Mandalay, with their own bank, companies and warehouses and some kind of organized social and economic life.
+In addition to legitimate trading, the Panthays of Panlong also became known as 'the aristocrats of the [[opium]] business' in the region now known as the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]]. The Panthay left the risky business of [[Peddler|peddling]] this highly profitable commodity locally to Shan and Han Chinese dealers. Instead, they ran large, well-armed caravans in long-distance convoys far into [[Siam]], [[Laos]], [[Tonkin]] and [[Yunnan]]. Each muleload was guarded by two rifles.
-It happened that there were also Chinese jade-assessors in the employ of the king. Rivalry between the Chinese and Panthay jade-assessors in courting the royal favor naturally led to a quarrel between the two groups, resulting in a number of deaths.<ref>(Interview with U Aung Myint)</ref> King Mindon had not given much serious thought to the religious and social differences between the Panthays and the Chinese. He had treated the two more or less alike. But after the Chinadown quarrel, the king began to see the wisdom of separating the two groups.
+When Harvey visited Panlong in 1931 he found that Panthay numbers had risen to 5,000 ('including local recruits') and that they were financed by [[Chinese Singaporean|Singaporean Chinese]], had 130 [[Mauser]] rifles with 1,500 mules, and exported opium by the hundredweight into French, Siamese and British territory. In contrast to Harvey's estimate, official estimates put the Panthay population of Burma at 2,202 for 1911 (1,427 males and 775 females), whilst by the 1921 Census of India this had declined to 1,517 (1,076 males and 441 females), and by 1931 to 1,106 (685 males and 421 females).
-===King Mindon and Panthays===
- [[File:Panthay mosque.JPG|thumb|Panthay Mosque ({{lang|zh|清真寺}}; Qīngzhēn Sì) in Mandalay]]
-It was also during this time that King Mindon granted the Panthays of the royal capital land on which to settle as a separate community, with a view to preventing further quarrels between them and the Chinese. The Panthays were given the rare favor of choosing their own place of residence within the confines of the royal capital, and they chose the site on which the present-day Panthay Compound (Chinese Muslim Quarter) is located. It was bounded on the north by 35th Street, in the south by 36th Street, in the east by 79th Street and in the west by 80th Street. This site was chosen because it was the camping ground for the mule caravans from Yunnan, which regularly came to the capital via the Theinni route.
+===British Burma===
-The broadminded King Mindon also permitted a mosque to be built on the granted site so that the Panthays would have their own place of worship. Having no funds for an undertaking of such magnitude, the Panthays of Mandalay put up the matter to the Sultan of Yunnan. Sultan Sulaiman had already started a business enterprise (''hao'') in Mandalay.
+[[File:Panthay men.jpg|thumb|Panthay men in British Burma.]]
+Other Panthays moved further into Burma, initially as miners anxious to exploit the [[ruby]] mines of [[Mogok]]; the Baldwin silver mines of [[Namtu]] in the Northern Shan State, the [[jade]] mines of [[Mogaung]] in Kachin State. Numbers of Panthay restaurateurs and innkeepers, merchants and traders settled in the urban centres of upland Burma – chiefly at [[Lashio]], [[Kengtung]], [[Bhamo]] and [[Taunggyi]] – to service the needs of these miners, passing caravaneers and local inhabitants. Other settlements largely devoted to trade with the indigenous [[Shan people|Shan]] and [[Karen people|Karen]] populations sprang up along the [[Salween River]]. Some moved to major urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, most notably to [[Mandalay]] and [[Rangoon]], where they flourished as merchants and middle-men representatives of Panlong and the other "Overland Chinese" settlements of Upper Burma and the "Overseas Chinese" community of the lowland port-cities. Bassein and [[Mawlamyaing|Moulmein]] must also have attracted some Panthay settlement, the latter port being a terminus of the overland caravan trade from Yunnan in its own right, via the northern Thai trade route through [[Kengtung]], [[Chiang Mai]] and [[Mae Sariang]].
+During most of the [[British Raj|British rule in Burma]] these Panthay settlers flourished, specialising in all levels of commerce from the international [[Gemstone|gem]] markets to shop and inn-keeping, mule-breeding and [[peddling]] or [[street hawking]]. Yunnanese peddlars penetrated into the unadministered and inaccessible hill tracts of "The Triangle" between the [[Mali River|Mali Hka]] and [[N'Mai River|Nmai Hka]] rivers, to the north of [[Myitkyina]]. Beyond the urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, the Panthays continued their involvement in the caravan trade with Yunnan, transporting [[silk]], tea, metal goods and foods from China to Burma, and carrying back European manufactured goods like broadcloths, specialized food and, above all, raw cotton, to Yunnan.
-His company was housed in a one-story brick building located at the present-day Taryedan on the west side of the 80th Street, between 36th and 37th Streets.<ref>(Interview with Haji U Ba Thi alias Haji Adam (born 11 October 1908) a Panthay elder who had served for many years as chairman of the Trust of 'the Panthay Mosque, on 15 October 1997.)</ref> The ''hao'' had been carrying on business in precious stones, jades, cotton, silk and other commodities of both Chinese and Burmese origins.
-===Diaspora===
-{{see also|Wa States#History}}
-The demise of the Sultanate had shattered the hopes of all the Panthays for their own Islamic kingdom in Yunnan. The blood-bath that occurred in its wake had made the decision for many Panthays: to flee the country for those who could make it, and not to return to Yunnan for those who were already outside. Colonel Mah Too-tu found himself in the same situation. When the Sultanate fell, Mah Too-tu was stranded at Mandalay. For a man of his rank and stature, going back to Tali-fu meant sure execution by the Manchu authorities. Mah Too-tu had no other alternative but to settle down in Mandalay. In November 1868 he had bought a plot of land with a house on it for 80 pieces of one-kyat coins from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess.<ref>(Family Parabaik)</ref> On 7 June 1873, Mah Too-tu married Shwe Gwe, a lady from Sagyin-wa village near Amarapura, who happened to be the daughter of a princess of Manipur brought to Mandalay as a captive by the Burmese king.<ref>(Than Tun, 1968, 19)</ref> Mah Too-tu spent the last years of his life at the Panthay Compound with his Burmese wife.
-After the mass exodus from Yunnan, the number of Panthays residing in Mandalay gradually increased. The new arrivals, usually families, came by way of Bhamo or via the Wa State. When the land for the Panthays was granted by King Mindon, there were a few houses on it, in addition to several old graves.<ref>(Interview with Haji U Ba Thi)</ref> This shows that the place had been an abandoned graveyard. In the years immediately following the completion of the mosque, the number of houses in the Panthay Compound was less than twenty. There were also between ten and twenty Panthay households living in other parts of Mandalay. But a trickle of new arrivals added to their number.
-The establishment of the Panthay Mosque in 1868 marked the emergence of the Chinese Muslims as a distinct community at Mandalay. Although the number of this first generation of Panthays remained small, the Mosque, which is still standing, constitutes a historic landmark. It signifies the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in Mandalay Ratanabon Naypyidaw.
-===Early 20th century===
-{{see also|Panlong Subtownship}}
-Over the next thirty or so years the Panthays of Panglong continues to prosper, though by the early 1920s a feud had begun to develop between them and the Was of neighbouring Pankawn. In 1926 this erupted into the local "Wa Panthay War", in which the latter were victorious and as a result of which Panglong threw off its vassalage to Pangkawn and reinforced its dominance over the trade routes of the region31. In addition to legitimate trading, by this time the Panthays, of Panglong were securely established as 'the aristocrats of the opium business' in the region now commonly designated the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]], leaving the Petty and risky business of peddlings this highly profitable commodity locally to Shan and Han Chinese dealers, and instead running large, well-armed caravans in long-distance convoys far into Siam, Laos, Tonking and Yunnan. When Harvey visited Panglong in 1931 he found that Panthay numbers had risen to 5,000 ('including local recruits'), that they were financed by [[Chinese Singaporean|Singaporean Chinese]], had 130 mauser rifles with 1,500 mules, and exported opium by the hundredweight into French, Siamese and British territory, each muleload escorted by two riflemen.
-Meanwhile, despite the relative importance of Panglong and the profits to be made from the long-distance caravan, other Panthays moved further into Burma, initially as miners anxious to exploit the ruby mines of Mogok; the Baldwin silver mines of Namtu in the Northern Shan State, the jade mines of Mogaung in Kachin State. Numbers of Panthay restaurateurs and innkeepers, merchants and traders settled in the urban centres of upland Burma – chiefly at Lashio, Kengtung, Bhamo and Taunggyi – to service the needs of these miners, passing caravaneers and the local inhabitants, whilst other settlements largely devoted to trade with the indigenous Shan and Karen populations sprang up along the [[Salween River]]. Finally, other Panthay elements moved to the major urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, most notably to Mandalay and Rangoon, where they flourished as merchants and representatives of their up – country fellows, as well as middle-men between Panglong and the other "Overland Chinese" settlements of Upper Burma and the "Overseas Chinese" community of the lowland port-cities. Bassein and [[Mawlamyaing|Moulmein]] must also have attracted some Panthay settlement, the latter port being a terminus of the overland caravan trade from Yunnan in its own right, via the northern Thai trade route through [[Kengtung]], [[Chiang Mai]] and [[Mae Sariang]].
-During the greater part of the period of [[British Raj|British rule in Burma]] these Panthay settlers flourished, specialising in all levels of commerce from the international [[Gemstone|gem]] markets to shop – and inn-keeping, mule-breeding and peddling or hawking – indeed Yunnanese peddlars (who may or may not have been Muslim) even penetrated into the unadministered and inaccessible hill tracts of "The Triangle" between Mali Hka and Nmai Hka, to the north of Myitkyina. Chiefly, however, beyond the urban centres of the Burmese lowlands, the Panthays continued their involvement in the caravan trade with Yunnan, transporting silk, tea, metal goods and foodstuffs (eggs, fruit, nut and even the renowned Yunnanese hams (doubtless for consumption by their Han fellow countrymen)) from China to Burma, and carrying back European manufactured goods, broadcloths, specialised foodstuffs (edible birds nests, sea slugs) and above all raw cotton, to Yunnan.
-In 1931 Harvey estimated the population of Panglong (which was predominantly Panthay) at 5,000 persons. Yet official estimates put the Panthay population of Burma at 2,202 for 1911 (1,427 males and 775 females), whilst by the 1921 Census of India this had declined to 1,517 (1,076 males and 441 females), and by 1931 to 1,106 (685 males and 421 females).
 ===World War II and independence===
+The traditional dominance of Panthay in the trade of the Burma-Yunnan frontier region was set back by the construction of the [[Burma Road]] between [[Lashio]] and [[Kunming]] in 1937–38.{{cn|date=July 2023}}
-A Census for 1941 was never taken, being interrupted by [[World War II]] and the Japanese invasion; indeed, it was as a result of the Japanese invasion the main Panthay settlement at Panglong was destroyed, and many Panthay fled to Yunnan, or crossed the largely unpoliced jungle frontiers into Thailand and Laos to escape Japanese persecution. The traditional dominance of Panthay in the trade of the Burma-Yunnan frontier region was also set back by the construction of the [[Burma Road]] between [[Lashio]] and [[Kunming]] in 1937–38, and by the exodus of thousands of Yunnanese refugees and [[Kuomintang]] troops following the seizure of power by the [[Chinese Communists]] in 1949. As a result of these developments, which brought a flood of predominantly Han, and not Hui, "Overland Chinese" to the Burmese Shan States, many Panthay seem to have chosen to migrate to northern Thailand, where their communities continue to flourish.
-[[Panlong Subtownship|Panglong]], a Chinese Muslim town in [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]], was entirely destroyed by the Japanese invaders in the [[Japanese invasion of Burma]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Forbes  |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David  |date=December 2015 |title='Saharat Tai Doem' Thailand in Shan State, 1941–45 |url=http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120518152031&aiid=120529165129 |work=CPA Media }}</ref> The Hui Ma Guanggui became the leader of the Hui Panglong self defense guard created by Su who was sent by the [[Kuomintang]] government of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] to fight against the Japanese invasion of Panglong in 1942. The Japanese destroyed Panglong, burning it and driving out the over 200 Hui households out as refugees. Yunnan and Kokang received Hui refugees from Panglong driven out by the Japanese. One of Ma Guanggui's nephews was Ma Yeye, a son of Ma Guanghua and he narrated the history of Panglang included the Japanese attack.<ref name="Chang2015">{{cite book|author=Wen-Chin Chang|title=Beyond Borders: Stories of Yunnanese Chinese Migrants of Burma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWPkBQAAQBAJ&q=The+Chinese+Nationalist+government+sent+a+delegate%2C+surnamed+Su%2C+to+organize+guard+Panglong+Ma+Guanggui+Guang+hua+Japanese+came+burned+down+village+two+hundred+Hui+households+flee+escaped&pg=PA122|date=16 January 2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5450-9|pages=122–180}}</ref> An account of the Japanese attack on the Hui in Panglong was written and published in 1998 by a Hui from Panglong called "Panglong Booklet".<ref name="Chang2015"/> The Japanese attack in Burma caused the Hui Mu family to seek refuge in Panglong but they were driven out again to Yunnan from Panglong when the Japanese attacked Panglong.<ref name="Chang2015"/>
-No comprehensive census of the remaining Panthay population within Burma has been taken since 1931, and restrictions on travel for foreigners, combined with the inherent weakness of central government control over those outlying areas of the Shan and Kachin Hills where many Panthays live, makes any attempt to calculate Burma's present (1986) Panthay population almost impossible (though an exaggerated estimate of 100,000 Panthays resident within Burma appeared in the Burmese daily ''Hanthawaddi'' in 1960). Certainly readily identifiable Panthay communities continue to exist in several areas which are open to foreign travel (Rangoon, Mandalay, Taunggyi), as well as, by report, in Kengtung, Bhamo, Mogok, Lashio and at Tanyan, near Lashio. Wherever they have settled in sufficient numbers, the Panthays have established their own mosques and madrasas (for example the Panthay Balee at Mandalay Short Lane, Rangoon, at Mandalay and in [[Myitkyina]]). Some of these mosques are in "pseudo-Moghul" style, clearly having been influenced by Indian Muslim tastes and styles, whilst others (notably at Mandalay) have Chinese architectural features. As with the Hui in China, the Burmese Panthay are exclusively [[Hanafi]]; few are conversant with more than the most elementary phrases of [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and quite often when a Panthay imam is not available to care for the spiritual welfare of a community, a South Asian and Zerbadi Muslim is engaged instead. [[Zerbadi Muslims]] are descendent community of intermarriages between foreign [[Muslim]] ([[South Asia]]n and [[Middle East]]ern) males and Burmese females.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wNYUAAAAIAAJ&q=Zerbadi+Muslim&pg=PA168|title=Islam in South-East Asia|first=Michael Barry|last=Hooker|date=1 January 1983|publisher=Brill Archive|access-date=17 August 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9004068449}}</ref>
-==Panthay caravaners==
-In the pre-colonial times the Panthays emerged as excellent long-distance caravaneers of southern China and northern Southeast Asia. They had virtually dominated whole caravan trade of Yunnan. By the time the first agents and adventurous pioneers the French and British imperialism arrived at the fringes of Yunnan, they found the caravan network of the region dominated by the Chinese Muslim muleteers.
-The Chinese Muslim domination of the Yunnan caravan network seems to have continued well into the 20th century. By the mid 19th century the caravans of' Yunnanese traders ranged over an area extending from the eastern frontiers of Tibet, through Assam, Burma, [[Thailand]], [[Laos]] and [[Tongkin]] (presently part of Vietnam), to the southern Chinese provinces of [[Sichuan]], [[Guizhou]] and [[Guangxi]].
+During [[World War II]], the main Panthay settlement at [[Panlong Subtownship|Panglong]] was destroyed in 1941 by the [[Japanese invasion of Burma]]. Many Panthay fled to [[Yunnan]], or crossed the jungle frontiers into [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]] to escape Japanese persecution.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Forbes  |first1=Andrew |last2=Henley |first2=David  |date=December 2015 |title='Saharat Tai Doem' Thailand in Shan State, 1941–45 |url=http://www.cpamedia.com/article.php?pg=archive&acid=120518152031&aiid=120529165129 |work=CPA Media }}</ref> The Japanese destroyed Panglong, burning it and driving out the over 200 Hui households out as refugees to Yunnan and Kokang.<ref name="Chang2015"/>
-The merchandise brought from Yunnan by the Panthay caravaneers included silk cloth, tea, metal utensils, iron in the rough, felts, finished articles of' clothing, walnuts, opium, wax, preserved fruits and foods, and dried meat of' several kinds. The Burmese goods taken back to Yunnan were raw cotton, raw and wrought silk, amber, jades and other precious stones, velvets, betel-nuts, tobacco, gold-leaf', preserves, paps, dye woods, stick lac, ivory, and specialized foodstuffs such as slugs, edible birds’ nests, among other things.<ref>(Anderson, 1876, 4)</ref> Raw cotton, which was reserved as a royal monopoly, was in great demand in China. An extensive trade in this commodity had existed between the Burmese kingdom and Yunnan. It was transported up the Ayeyarwaddy River to Bhamo where it was sold to the Chinese merchants, and conveyed partly by land and partly by water into Yunnan, and from there to other provinces of China. Most caravans consisted of between fifty and one hundred mules, employing ten to fifteen drivers.<ref>(Forbes 1987, 293)</ref>
+[[Ma Guanggui]], a Hui, became the leader of the Hui Panlong self defense guard. The guard was created by the [[Kuomintang]] government of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] to fight against the Japanese invasion of Panlong in 1942.
-A reason for the cessation of trade by the Bhamo routes was due to King Mindon's earlier policy of confining the British to lower Burma. Mindon had feared that trade along the Bhamo route would lead to the extension of British influence to upper Burma and beyond. He did not want a fleet of British steamers to the north of the capital. He also seemed to be desirous of making Mandalay the center of trade instead of Bhamo which was difficult to control.<ref>(Sladen Report, 1876,5)</ref>
+<ref name="Chang2015">{{cite book|author=Wen-Chin Chang|title=Beyond Borders: Stories of Yunnanese Chinese Migrants of Burma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWPkBQAAQBAJ&q=The+Chinese+Nationalist+government+sent+a+delegate%2C+surnamed+Su%2C+to+organize+guard+Panglong+Ma+Guanggui+Guang+hua+Japanese+came+burned+down+village+two+hundred+Hui+households+flee+escaped&pg=PA122|date=16 January 2015|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5450-9|pages=122–180}}</ref> An account of the Japanese attack in Panlong was written and published in 1998 in the "Panglong Booklet".<ref name="Chang2015"/>
+The exodus of thousands of Yunnanese refugees and [[Kuomintang]] troops following the seizure of power by the [[Chinese Communists]] in 1949. As a result of these developments, which brought a flood of predominantly Han, and not Hui, "Overland Chinese" to the Burmese Shan States, many Panthay seem to have chosen to migrate to northern Thailand, where their communities continue to flourish.
-Later, this short-sighted policy and attitude of King Mindon gradually wore out as he began to see the practical economic and political advantages of the resuscitation of Bhamo trade to his country and people. Thus, he extended all the help he could to the Sladen mission. With the Burmese monarch favorably disposed towards it, the British mission was cordially received by the Panthay Governor of Momien, Ta-sa-kon. Due to lack of' security of the roads, Sladen was not allowed to proceed to Tali-fu to discuss matters directly with the Sultan. However, the Sultan sent letters to Momien in which he expressed the desire of the Panthay government to enter into friendly relations with the British government, and to foster mutual trade. Before returning, Sladen and the Momien Governor Ta-sa-kon, as the Sultan's personal representative, signed an agreement in which the British and the Panthays pledged to foster Yunnan-Burma trade to the best of their ability. Though far from being a satisfactory treaty to both parties, the agreement had established some kind of [[de facto]] friendship between them.
 ==See also==
@@ Line 158: / Line 150: @@
 # Forbes, Andrew D.W., "The Role of Hui Muslims in the Traditional Caravan Trade between Yunnan and Thailand," Asian Merchants and Businessmen in the Indian Ocean and the China sea: 13th-20th Centuries (French Journal published under the direction of Denys Lombard & Jean Aubin), (Paris: School of Higher Studies in Social Sciences, 1987).
 # Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). ''Traders of the Golden Triangle''. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B006GMID5K
-# Kaye, J.W., Major Sladen's Report on the Bhamo Route, (In Continuation of' Parliamentary Paper No. 251, of Session 1868-9), (London: India Office, 1871), Microfilm copy.
+# Kaye, J.W., Major Sladen's Report on the Bhamo Route, (In Continuation of Parliamentary Paper No. 251, of Session 1868-9), (London: India Office, 1871), Microfilm copy.
 # Scott, J. George, GUBSS, 1, i ( Rangoon Government Printing, 1900).
 # Thaung, Dr., “Panthay Interlude in Yunnan: A Study in Vicissitudes Through the Burmese Kaleidoscope,” JBRS Fifth Anniversary Publications No. 1 (Rangoon Sarpy Beikman, 1961).
 # Yule, Col. Henry & Burnell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson- A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical And Discursive (Delhi-.Munshiran Manoharlal, 1968), Reprint.
 # Than Tun, Dr. (Professor of History), History on Tour, 111, (In Burma) (Yangon Nantha House, August 1968).
-# Parabaik dated 13 November 1868 containing a short account of' Mah Too-tu's purchase of land and house from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess (a family parabaik of the writer)..
+# Parabaik dated 13 November 1868 containing a short account of Mah Too-tu's purchase of land and house from Khunit Ywa-sa Princess (a family parabaik of the writer).
 ==External links==
+*{{Commonscatinline|Panthays}}
-* {{cite news | first =Harry | last =Priestly | url =http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 | title =The Outsiders | publisher =[[The Irrawaddy]] | date =January 2006 | access-date =2006-07-07 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20061127183834/http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 | archive-date =2006-11-27 }}
+*{{cite news | first =Harry | last =Priestly | url =http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 | title =The Outsiders | publisher =[[The Irrawaddy]] | date =January 2006 | access-date =2006-07-07 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20061127183834/http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 | archive-date =2006-11-27 }}
 {{Ethnic groups in Burma}}

v t e Ethnic groups in Myanmar
Burmese people
Kachin (12)	Jingpaw Dalaung Gauri Hkahku Duleng Maru (Lawgore) Hpon Lashi (La Chit) Atsi Lisu Rawang Taron Ngochang
Kayah (9)	Geba Karen Gheko Karenni Ka-Yun (Kayan; Padaung) Manu Manaw Pale Yin Baw Yin Talai Zayein
Kayin (Karen) (11)	Pa-Le-Chi Mon Kayin (Sarpyu) S'gaw Ta-Hlay-Pwa Paku Bwe Monpwa Monnepwa Shu (Pwo)
Chin (53)	Anu Anun Asho Bre (Ka-Yaw) Cumtu Dai (Yindu) Dim Eik-swair Gunte (Lyente) Guite Hualngo Kaung Saing Chin Kaungso Kebar Khawno Kwangli (Sim) Kwelshin Kwe Myi Lai (Haka Chin) Laizao Lawhtu Laymyo Lhinbu Lyente Magun Malin Marma Matu Meithei (Kathe) Mgan Mi-er Lusayy Mro-Khimi people Naga Ngawn Oo-Pu Panun Rongtu Saing Zan Saline Senthang Tangkhul Tapong Tay-Zan Thado Tiddim (Hai-Dim) Torr (Tawr) Yin Gog Zahau Zahnyet (Zanniat) Sizang Zophei Zotung Zou
Bamar (Burman) (9)	Dawei Beik Yaw Yabein Kadu (Kado) Ganan Hpon
Mon (1)	Mon
Rakhine (Arakanese) (7)	Kamein (Kaman) Khami Daingnet Maramagyi Miram (Mara) Mru (Taung Mro) Thet
Shan (33)	Danaw (Danau) Danu Intha Pa-O Khamti Shan Khmu (Khamu) Kwi Kokang Lahu Palaung Shan Gale Shan Gyi Tai-Loi Tai Nua Tai-Lon Tai-Lay Taishon Taungyo Wa (Va) Yao Yin Kya Yin Net Yun Man Zi Pyin Eng Son Kaw (Akha-E-Kaw) Maw Shan Maingtha Hkun (Khün)
Unrecognised / Others	Anglo-Burmese Chinese Panthay Bayingyi Gurkha Mizo Indian Tamils Rohingya Malay Pakistani Taungtha