Guqin

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Template:Guqin names The guqin (Chinese: 古琴; Hanyu Pinyin: gǔqín; Wade-Giles: ku-ch'in; literally "ancient stringed-instrument") is the modern name for a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family (中華絃樂噐). It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by scholars and literati as an instrument of great subtlety and refinement.

Traditionally the instrument was called simply qin 「琴」 (which can also be written as 「琹」, 「珡」 or other ancient forms) [1], but by the 20th century the term had come to be applied to many other musical instruments as well (e.g., the yangqin 「揚琴」 hammered dulcimer, the huqin 「胡琴」 family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (Chinese: 鋼琴; Hanyu Pinyin: gāng qín; literally "steel stringed-instrument"), so the prefix "gu-" 「古」 (meaning "ancient") was added for clarification. It can also be called qixianqin 「七絃琴」 ("seven-stringed instrument"). The guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng (「古箏」 "ancient strung-instrument"), another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Because Robert Hans van Gulik's famous book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the guqin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute [2]. Other incorrect classifications (mainly from music CDs) include "harp" or "table-harp".

The guqin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register (its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello). Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. Stopped sounds are noteworthy for the variety of slides and ornaments used, and the use of glissando (sliding tones) gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello or fretless double bass. Extended passages consisting entirely of harmonics are common, this made possible because the 91 indicated harmonic positions allow great flexibility; early tablature shows that even more harmonic positions were used in the past. By tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized for about two millennia.

History

Legend has it that the qin, the most revered of all Chinese musical instruments, has a history of about 5,000 years; that the legendary figures of China's pre-history; Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di (the Yellow Emperor); were involved in its creation (almost all qin books and tablature collections published prior to the 20th century states this as the factual origins of the qin) [3]; though this is no longer viewed as fact. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and related instruments have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. Non-fretted zithers unearthed in southern Chinese tombs show similar instruments that gradually became longer and had fewer strings, but they are not named in the tombs. Chinese tradition says the qin originally had five strings, but then two were added about 1,000 BCE, making seven. Some suggest that larger zithers with many strings gradually got smaller with fewer and fewer strings to reach seven. Whether the southern instruments can be called "qin," or simply southern relatives of a northern instrument that has not survived, is questionable. The extact origins of the qin is still a very much continuing subject of debate over the past few decades.

Ancient and modern variants of the character for the word qin, often found in old books

Based on the detailed description in the poetical essay "Qin Fu" 【琴賦】 by Xi Kang (223–262), the form of the qin that is recognizable today was most likely set around the late Han Dynasty. The earliest surviving qin in this modern form, preserved in both China and Japan, have been reliably dated to the Tang Dynasty. Many are still playable, the most famous perhaps being the one named "Jiuxiao Huanpei" 《九霄環佩》, attributed to the famous late Tang dynasty qin maker Lei Wei (雷威). It is kept in the Palace Museum in Beijing. Famous titles are often repeated: a Tang qin of the same name which was recently sold in an auction was not the famous one kept in the Palace Museum inside the Forbidden City, but it has been played by Li Xiangting, who praised it highly. [4]

According to Robert Temple, the qin played an important part in the Chinese gaining the first understanding of music timbre. That "the Chinese understanding of the nature of sound as vibration was much increased by studying the production of timbre on the strings of the ch'in." This understanding of timbre, overtones and higher harmonics eventually led the Chinese to discover equal temperament in music. [5]

In 1977, a recording of "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts. It is the longest excerpt included on the disc. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. [6]

Jiu Xiao Huan Pei 《九霄環佩》: The famous Tang Dynasty qin by Lei Wei

Mentions in Chinese literature and Guqin literature

When consulting ancient Chinese texts, one will come across frequent references to the qin. Such references are particularly frequent in poetry, such as those of the ancient Shijing and of the Tang period.

In the Shijing 【詩經】 (Book of Songs), several poems mention the qin (with their Mao numbers):

「我有嘉賓， 鼓瑟鼓琴。」 "I have fine guests; So I strum the se, strum the qin..." [161]
「夫妻好合， 如鼓琴瑟。」 "Husband and wife in love with each other; Like the strumming of qin and se..." [164]
「窈窕淑女， 琴瑟友之。」 "Fair and gentle is the maiden; Use qin and se to befriend her..." [1]
「琴瑟在御， 莫不靜好。」 "The qin and se in your [the husband's] hands; Will emit their quiet pleasant tones..." [82]

In Tang Poetry, we have many mentions, including:

  • 「泠泠七弦上， 靜聽松風寒， 古調雖自愛， 今人多不彈。」 Listenⓘ "Emotionless the mood of your 'seven-strings'; In the quiet, I sense the cool of the 'Wind through the pines'; I am one who loves the ancient tunes; There are few now who can play them." [Playing the Zither : Liu Changqing, 《彈琴》 : 劉長卿]
  • 「主人有酒歡今夕， 請奏鳴琴廣陵客， 月照城頭烏半飛， 霜淒萬木風入衣， 銅鑪華燭燭增輝， 初彈淥稅後楚妃， 一聲已動物皆靜， 四座無言星欲稀， 清淮奉使千餘里， 敢告雲山從此始。」 Listenⓘ"Our host brings wine, for merry-making tonight; And bids the guest from Guangling, to play upon the zither; Moonlight bathes the city walls, crows fly mid-air; Frost petrifies ten thousand tress, wind pierces our robes. But the copper stove gleams bright, and candles add their shimmer; First he plays Lu Water, then The Princess of Chu. As the first note trembles, all else falls silent; From the whole company not a word, till the stars begin to pale. The thousand miles to Qinghuai, I was sent by the Emperor's mandate; On such a night I venture to speak of, retiring to the mountains and the clouds." [A Zither Song : Li Qi, 《琴歌》 : 李頎]
  • 「獨坐幽篁裡， 彈琴復長嘯， 深林人不知， 明月來相照。」 "Sitting alone, in the hush of the bamboo; I thrum my lute, and whistle lingering notes. In the secrecy of the wood, no one can hear; Only the clear moon, comes to shine on me." [Hut Among the Bamboos : Wang Wei, 《竹里館》 : 王維]
The above poems are from 【唐詩三百首】 Tangshi Sanbai Shou [Three Hundred Tang Poems]. [7]

Guqin literature

Main article: Guqin literature

There are a number of ancient sources that discuss qin lore, qin theory and general qin literature. Some of these books are available inserted into certain qinpu (qin tablature collections).

Schools, societies and players

The famous painting "Ting Qin Tu" (聽琴圖, Listening to the Qin), by the Song emperor Huizong (1082–1135)

Historical schools and societies

Because of the difference in geography in China, many qin schools known as qin pai (琴派) developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest. The main schools are: Guangling (廣陵); Yushan (虞山 also known as Qinchuan (琴川) or Shu (熟)) in Changshu 常熟; Shu (蜀 or Chuan (川)) in Sichuan 四川; Fanchuan (泛川); Songjiang (松江); Jinling (金陵); Zhucheng (諸城); Mei'an (梅庵 / 楳盦); Min (閩) in Fujian 福建; Pucheng (浦城); Jiuyi (九嶷); Zhe (浙); Shaoxing (紹興); Wu (吳) and Shan'nan (山南).

Most qin schools and societies are based in China, but during the 20th century many overseas societies began to form. Although qin study was initially confined to China in ancient times, countries like Japan also have their own qin traditions via import from China, but are extremely small in scale. The Tokyo Qin Society was recently founded, opening up more opportunities for qin study in Japan. Japan has published a qinpu (qin tablature collection) in the past, known as Toukou Kinpu or Donggao Qinpu 【東臯琴譜】.

Main article: Qin societies

Players

There have been many players throughout the ages. The instrument was a favourite of the scholars, so many artists played it. Some famous players are also associated with some melodies, like Confucius and Qu Yuan.

Historical:

  • Confucius 孔子: Philosopher, 551–479 BCE, associated with the piece Kongzi Duyi 《孔子讀易》, Weibian Sanjue 《韋編三絕》 and Youlan 《幽蘭》.
  • Bo Ya 伯牙: Qin player of the Spring and Autumn Period, associated with the piece Gao Shan 《高山》 and Liu Shui 《流水》.
  • Zhuang Zi 莊子: Daoist philosopher of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Zhuang Zhou Mengdie 《莊周蒙蝶》 and Shenhua Yin 《神化引》.
  • Qu Yuan 屈原: Poet of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Li Sao 《離騷》.
  • Cai Yong 蔡邕: Han musician, author of Qin Cao 【琴操】.
  • Cai Wenji 蔡文姬: Cai Yong's daughter, associated with the piece Hujia Shiba-pai 《胡笳十八拍》, etc.
  • Sima Xiangru 司馬相如: Han poet, 179-117 BCE.
  • Zhuge Liang : (181 - 234) Chinese military leader in the Three Kingdoms, one legend has him playing Guqin calmly outside his fort while scaring off the enemy attackers.
  • Ji Kang 嵇康: Sage of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, writer of Qin Fu 【琴賦】.
  • Li Bai 李白: Tang poet, 701-762.
  • Bai Juyi 白居易: Tang poet, 772-846.
  • Song Huizong 宋徽宗: Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts, had a Wanqin Tang 『萬琴堂』 ("10,000 Qin Hall") in his palace.
  • Guo Chuwang 郭楚望: Patriot at the end of the Song Dynasty, composer of the piece Xiaoxiang Shuiyun 《瀟湘水雲》.

The classical collections such as Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu and Qinshi Xu have biographies of hundreds of more players. [8]

Contemporary:

Main article: Contemporary Guqin players

Contemporary qin players extend from the early 20th century to the present. More so than in the past, such players tend to have many different pursuits and occupations other than qin playing.

Performance

In the performance and playing of the qin, the player will use a variety of techniques to utilise the full potential of the instrument. They would read the specialist and unique tablature that was developed over the centuries and amass a repertoire of popular and ancient tunes for the qin.

Playing technique

The beauty of qin melodies comes not only from the melodies themselves, but from the colors a player can apply to the individual tones and their combinations. The exceedingly rich tones of the qin can be categorised as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is san yin 〔散音〕, which means "scattered sounds." This is produced by plucking the required string to sound an open note. The second is fan yin 〔泛音〕, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, in which the player lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the hui dots, pluck and lift, creating a crisp and clear sound. The third is an yin 〔按音 / 案音 / 實音 / 走音〕, or "stopped sounds." This forms the bulk of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it connects with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the musician's hand often slides up and down, thereby modifying the pitch. This technique resembles that of playing a slide guitar, though with a more room for flexibility and expression.

When plucking the strings, it is not required to attach fake-nails on one's fingers. One will often leave their fingernails long, and cut them into an elliptical shape. The length is subjective and will depend on the player's preference, but it is usually around 3-4mm from the finger tip. If it is too short, then the finger tip will deaden the sound as it touches the string after the nail has plucked it. If it is too long then the fingers can be cumbersome and can impede performance. Generally, the nails of the right hand are kept long, whilst the nails of the left are cut short, so as to be able to press on the strings without hinderance. For people who have brittle fingernails, the Yugu Zhai Qinpu has some methods of strengthening them. Unlike other plucked instruments, like guzheng and pipa, plectrums and fake-nails should be avoided. For the guzheng and pipa where one must attack the strings with force, thus, susceptible to fingernail breakage, the qin requires gentle force to play. Also, fake-nails tend to hinder the fingers, or create an unsatisfactory tone, thus it is best to pluck with natural fingernails. That and because one can feel the qin strings better.

There are eight basic right hand finger techniques: pi 〈劈〉 (thumb pluck outwards), tuo 〈托〉 (thumb pluck inwards), mo 〈抹〉 (index in), tiao 〈挑〉 (index out), gou 〈勾〉 (middle in), ti 〈剔〉 (middle out), da 〈打〉 (ring in), and zhai 〈摘〉 (ring out); the little finger is not used. Out of these basic eight, their combinations create many. Cuo 〈撮〉 is to pluck two strings at the same time, lun 〈輪〉 is to pluck a string with the ring, middle and index finger out in quick succession, the suo 〈鎖〉 technique involves plucking a string several times in a fixed rhythm, bo 〈撥〉 cups the fingers and attacks two strings at the same time, and gun fu 〈滾拂〉 is to create glissandi by running up and down the strings continuously with the index and middle fingers. These are just a few.

Left hand techniques start from the simple pressing down on the string (mostly with the thumb between the flesh and nail, and the ring finger), sliding up or down to the next note (shang 〈上〉 and xia 〈下〉), to vibrati by swaying the hand (yin 〈吟〉 and nao 〈猱〉, there are as many as 15 plus different forms of vibrato), plucking the string with the thumb whilst the ring finger stops the string at the lower position (qiaqi 〈掐起 / 搯起〉), hammering on a string using the thumb (yan 〈掩 / 罨〉), to more difficult techniques such as pressing on several strings at the same time.

Techniques executed by both hands in tandem are more difficult to achieve, like qia cuo san sheng 〈掐撮三聲〉 (a combination of hammering on and off then plucking two strings, then repeating), to more stylised forms, like pressing of all seven strings with the left, then strumming all the strings with the right, then the left hand quickly moves up the qin, creating a rolling sound like a bucket of water being thrown in a deep pool of water (this technique is used in the Shu style of Liu Shui to imitate the sound of water). [9]

In order to master the qin, there are in excess of 50 different techniques that must be mastered. Even the most commonly used (such as tiao) are difficult to get right without proper instruction from a teacher. Also, certain techniques vary from teacher to teacher and school to school. [10]

There are also a lot of obsolete fingerings and notation that are rarely used in modern tablature. There are now new books that have began to be published about these fingerings and notation as Qin culture and study gains momentum. [11]

Tablature and notation

First section of Youlan, showing the name of the piece: 《碣石調幽蘭第五》 "Jieshi Diao Youlan No.5", the preface describing the piece's origins, and the tablature in longhand form.

Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and stroke technique, thus comprising a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the gongche system, or indicate rhythm using dots. The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the 12th century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the 7th century CE, called Jieshi Diao: You Lan 《碣石調幽蘭》 (Solitary Orchid, in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called wenzi pu 〔文字譜〕 (literally "written notation"), which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty Cao Rou (曹柔) and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, hui number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called jianzi pu 〔減字譜〕 (literally "reduced notation") and it was a great leap forward for recording qin pieces. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty onwards, a great many qinpu 〔琴譜〕 (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan, the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty [12]. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. Sadly, many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years. [13]

File:Shenqi Mipu, vol 1 pg 1.jpg
First page / leaf of volume 3 of Shenqi Mipu. From right to left: Full title of tablature collection 【臞仙神奇秘譜】 with volume number 下卷 (lower or third) plus seals of the owner of this copy (if any), title of the volume 霞外神品, the tuning and method of tuning 〈黃鐘調〉, name of the 'modal preface' 〔調意〕, the tablature (shorthand) of the modal preface, [next page] title of the piece, discription of the piece's origins, and the tablature of said piece.

Another major change in the tablature happened during the Qing period. Before, the recording of the note positions between hui were only approximations. For example, to play sol on the seventh string, the position the player must stop is between the 7th and 8th hui. The tablature of Ming times would only say "between 7 and 8" 「七八日(間)」 or for other positions "below 6" 「六下」 or even say "11" 「十一」 (when the correct position is slightly higher). During the Qing, this was replaced by the decimal system. The space between two hui were split into 10 'fen' 〔分〕, so the tablature can indicate the correct position of notes more accurately, so for the examples above, the correct positions are 7.6, 6.2 and 10.8 respectively. Some even went further to split one fen into a further 10 'li' 〔釐〕, but since the distance is too minute to affect the pitch to a large degree, it was considered impractical to use. Some people argue that the old system is just as accurate as the new system when qin tuning theory is observed.[14] Also, these old positions may actually conform to the rules of equally tempered music, with its pitches slightly flater, such as in the case of 8 for 7.9 and 11 for 10.8. Another main property for this old system is that it requires the player to "feel for the note", just as you do for any other fretless stringed instrument, be it erhu or violin, instead of relying solely on fixed positions (which pitches can change slightly depending on how the player tunes their qin).

File:Qinpu 1.jpg
A selection of facsimile qinpu in a private collection

Existing qinpu generally come from private collections or in public libraries throughout China, etc. Those that are available for public purchase are facsimile qinpu printed and bound in the traditional Chinese bookbinding process. More modern qinpu tend to be bound in the normal Western way on modern paper. The format uses qin notation with staff notation and/or jianpu notation.

Main article: List of existing Qinpu

New developments in Qin tablature

A number of efforts have been made to further develop qin tablature. A book by Wang Guangqi (王光祈) uses Roman and Arabic numerals to express the information provided by qin tablature. The qin player, Gong Yi, developed a format using staff notation combined with some tablature marks [15]. Others have tried to write a computer program that will do this. Chen Changlin, a Beijing-based computer scientist and qin player of the Min (Fujian) School, developed the first computer program to encode qin notation from ancient tablature sources. [16]

Repertoire

Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San" 《廣陵散》, which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" 《流水》 (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" 《陽關三疊》 (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" 《梅花三弄》 (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" 《瀟湘水雲》 (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" 《平沙落雁》 (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player will generally have a repertoire of around ten pieces which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it or if the opportunity arises. Players mainly learn popular well transcribed versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to pull off successfully.

A list of Guqin pieces which includes mostly played pieces, is used for Guqin certification examinations in China. [17]

Dapu 〔打譜〕 is the transcribing of old tablature into a playable form. This can be used to create new music as well as to reconstruct the ancient melodies. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for him/herself. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher or master. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be consulted if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them (though near the end of the Qing dynasty, a handful of qinpu had started to employ various rhythm indicating devices, such as dots). If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to assume that qin music is devoid of rhythm and melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the "jianzi pu" notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced (just as staff notation cannot be replaced for Western instruments, because they developed a notation system that suited the instruments well). There are two views of how to best utilize dapu: one is to use it to create new music, and the other is to use it to reconstruct the way the original music was played. [18]

Organology

Whilst the qin followed a certain grammar of acoustic in its construction, its external form could and did take on a huge amount of variation, whether it be from the embellishments or even the basic structure of the instrument. Qin tablatures from the Song era onwards have catalogued a plethora of qin forms. All, however, obey very basic rules of acoustics and symbolism of form. The qin uses strings of silk or metal-nylon and is tuned in accordance to traditional principles.

Construction

According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang 周文王 added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou 伯邑考. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen hui 『徽』 on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 feet, 6.5 inches, representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" 『龍池』 and "phoenix pond" 『鳳沼』.

Names of the front and back parts of the qin
Names of the front and back parts of the qin

The sound chamber of the qin is constructed with two boards of wood, typically of differing wood types. The slightly rounded top board (soundboard) is usually made of tong wood 『桐』, the Chinese parasol tree, or Chinese paulownia. There are many different types of tong wood, the names of which are listed in the Yuguzhai Qinpu: wutong 『梧桐』 (Paulownia tomentosa, also Firmiana platanifolia or Firmiana simplex), baitong 『白桐』, qingtong 『青桐』 (Japanese paulownia), paotong 『泡桐』, yitong 『椅桐』 and nantong 『南桐』; the best is wutong, but paotong is now widely used. The bottom board is made of zi mu 『梓木』 catalpa (Catalpa ovata) or, more recently, nan mu 『楠木』 camphor wood (Machilus nanmu). The wood must be well seasoned, that is, the sap and moisture must be removed (of the top board wood). If sap remains then it will deaden the sound and, as the moisture evaporates, the wood will warp and crack. Some makers use old or ancient wood to construct qins because most of the sap and moisture has been removed naturally by time (old shan mu 『杉木』, Chinese Cunninghamia or Japanese Cryptomeria, is often used for creating modern qins). Some go to lengths to obtain extremely ancient wood, such as that from Han dynasty tomb structures or coffins. Although such wood is very dry, it is not necessarily the best since it may be infected with wood worm or be of inferior quality or type. Many modern qins made out of new tong wood (such as those made by Zeng Chengwei) can surpass the quality of antique qins. [19]

There are two sound holes in the bottom board, as the playing techniques of the qin employ the entire surface of the top board which is curved / humped. The inside of the top board is hollowed out to a degree (if the board is too thick, then the sound will be dull and deadened; if the board is too thin, the sound will be too bright and loud). Inside the qin, there are 'nayin' 『納音』 sound absorbers to reinforce the sound, and a 'tian chu' 『天柱』 and 'di chu' 『地柱』 soundposts that connect the bottom board to the top (which act as sound reinforcers but also anti-warping devices). The boards are joined using a "hinge joint" method to produce the typically mellow sounds of the qin. Lacquer 『漆』 from the Chinese lacquer tree (Rhus verniciflua) is then applied to the surfaces of the qin, mixed with various types of matrix, the most common being "lujiao shuang" 『鹿角霜』, the remains of deer antler after the glue has been extracted. Often, ceramic powder is used instead of deer antler powder, but the quality is not as good. After the lacquer has dried (a qin will need several layers), the surface will be polished using oil stones. At the head end of the instrument is the "yue shan" 『岳山』 or bridge, and at the other end is the "long yin" 『龍齦』 (dragon's gums) or nut. There are 13 circular mother-of-pearl inlays which mark the harmonic positions, as well as a reference point to note position, called hui 『徽』 ("insignia"). The book Yugu Zhai Qinpu is perhaps the most famous book that describes in detail the construction method of the qin.

Forms

Qin forms are shapes or styles which a qin can be made in. In the Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu there is a large number of qin forms listed with their origins [20]. The most popular form is the Zhongni 「仲尼式」 form, which is named after Confucius' style-name. It is the most simple yet elegant. Other popular forms include the Fuxi 「伏羲式」 form which was popularlised by the famous Tang qin Jiuxiao Huanpei (see second image of this article), which is difficult to create to an elegant standard. There is the Lianzhu 「連珠式」 form (see first image) and the distinctively attractive forms of Luoxia 「落霞式」 ("falling mist"), Cijun 「此君式」 ("this gentleman") or "bamboo" and Jiaoye 「蕉葉式」 ("banana leaf") forms. Although there is a dizzying array of forms a maker can use (which includes some rather bizarre ones), generally, makers stick to more usual and popular forms. This is because not only are they easier to make, but because changing the outer shape can alter the shape and volume of the soundbox considerably, and the more chunks and indentations on the outer shape, the smaller the soundbox becomes.

There is also a special construction process called baina 『百衲』 which uses around a hundred or so small pieces of wood, in square or diamond shapes, fitted and stuck together, then carved into a qin. This method is only used by only a few makers. Plus, the glue holding the pieces could melt in a bad climate condition.

Examples of duanwen. Top to bottom: Flowing-water markings with running-cloud markings 『流水行雲紋』, snake-skin cracks 『蛇腹斷』, ice-crack markings 『冰裂紋』

Duanwen

On the surface of the qin there may be cracks or patternations called duanwen 〔斷紋〕. These cracks appear after a long period of time due to ageing. The wood's water content slowly evapourates, so the wood retracts; the lacquer, however, does not, so it cracks. It should be distinguished from cracking or warping from the wood, which creates structural cracks. Duanwen are highly prized by the qin connoisseur because they not only prove the qin's antiquity (to a certain degree of error), but are also pleasant to look at. There are many names for different cracks, such as "snake-skin cracks" 『蛇腹斷』, "ice-crack markings" 『冰裂紋』, "cow-hair cracks" 『牛毛斷』, "flowing-water markings" 『流水紋』, "running-cloud markings" 『行雲紋』, "tortoise-back markings" 『龜背紋』, "plum-blossom cracks" 『梅花斷』, etc. Modern qin makers can artificially create cracks by first heating the lacquered qin for a few hours until it is hot, then immersing it in a bath of ice cubes, thus the wood retracts quickly causing cracks on the surface of the qin (this is not a new method). Of course, this method does not create the best of cracks. Although a qin may have duanwen, one can still play it, providing the duanwen is not flaking off or lifting off the surface. Otherwise, it would have to be re-lacquered, partially if the flaking is not too severe, entirely if it is literally unplayable. Qin makers tend to avoid removing the old lacquer when re-lacquering and maintain as much of the duanwen as possible since real duanwen cannot be created overnight but through centuries of natural aging. Some makers when re-lacquering would use a different hue or colour of lacquer so that the lacquer underneath can contrast with the new, and thus be seen more clearly. The colour of the lacquer used can range from extreme black to brown to purple to red (in the rarest cases). Colour is achieved by using minerals or chemicals added to the processed lacquer. [21]

Another property of duanwen is that the lacquer does not stick to the wood so tightly, therefore, the sound is not restricted as in a newly lacquered qin.

Strings

Until the Cultural Revolution, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk 『絲』, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings 『鋼絲』. This was partly due to the scarcity of high quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone.

Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid composed of a special mixture of natural glue that binds the strands together. The strings is taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother. According to ancient manuals, there are three distinctive gauges of thickness that one can make the strings. The first is taigu 〖太古〗 [Great Antiquity] which is the standard gauge, the zhongqing 〖中清〗 [Middle Clarity] is thinner, whilst the jiazhong 〖加重〗 [Added Thickness] is thicker. According to the Yugu Zhai Qinpu, zhongqing is the best.

Recently in China, production of very good quality silk strings has resumed and more players are beginning to use them. The American qin player and scholar John Thompson advocates for the use of both silk and nylon-wrapped metal strings for different styles of qin music, much like the guitar exists in both classical (nylon-string) and steel-string forms. [22]

Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Further, it is the case that nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds.

Although silk strings tend to break more often than metal nylon ones, they are stronger than one may be led to think. Silk is very flexible, and can be strung to high tensions and tuned up to the standard pitch that was proposed by mainland China (5th string at A) without breaking. Also, although they may be more likely to break at higher tension, they are hardly discardable once a string has broken. Silk strings tend to be very long (more than 2 metres) and break at the point where it rubs on the bridge. One simply ties another butterfly knot at the broken end, cut the frayed bit, then re-string. In this way, the string can be re-used up to ten times for the thinner strings (three or four times for thicker ones), and every set includes an extra seventh (most likely to break) and probably a fourth (next most likely to break). Because silk strings break easily, there are very few that survive from the past dynasties.

A selection of different qin strings. Top to bottom: 〖太古琴絃〗 Taigu Silk Qin Strings [中清 zhongqing gauge] with a container of 'string gum' 「絃膠」, 〖上音牌琴弦〗 Shangyin Shanghai Conservatorie Quality Qin Strings (metal-nylon), 〖虎丘古琴絃〗 Huqiu Silk Strings

Traditionally, the strings were wrapped around the goose feet 『雁足』 [23], but there has been a device that has been invented, which is a block of wood attached to the goose feet, with pins similar to those used to tune the guzheng protruding out at the sides, so one can string and tune the qin using a tuning wrench. This is good for those who lack the physical strength to pull and add tension to the strings when wrapping the ends to the goose feet. However, the tuning device looks rather unsightly and thus many qin players prefer the traditional manner of tuning; many also feel that the strings should be firmly wrapped to the goose feet in order that the sound may be "grounded" into the qin. Further, one cannot wrap silk strings around such tuning pins as they tend to break more easily at the wrapping end. Stephen Dydo of the United States has recently developed a customised tuning device which uses violin pegs rather than zither pins. It is more suitable for silk strings. However, it is still difficult to control and tune accurately. Such devices are really best used for metal-nylon strings.

Although the future of metal-nylon string manufacture is secure, the manufacture situation of silk strings is not. Throughout the ages, particularly the political disturbances of the 20th century as well as the popularity of the metal-nylon strings, has seen silk string manufacture decline. Plus the difficulty in obtaining the best quality silk and the difficulty in obtaining a high quality throughout has brought about only short phases now and again of silk string manufacture. There is currently a steady supply of standard silk strings (from Suzhou), plus a fluctuating quality and supply of extremely good quality strings.

Etymological note on the word 'string'

There are a number of Chinese characters for the word string(s). 『絃』, 『弦』, 『線』 and 『綫』. According to Chinese Characters (1915), 『線』 and 『綫』 are both the same character (the former used in Taiwan and Hong Kong, the later used in mainland China in its simplified form), which meaning is 'thread', 'line' or 'wire'. However, the characters 『絃』 and 『弦』 mean the same thing ('string'), but have different etymological meanings. In the case of 『絃』, the radical is 「糸」, which is the radical for silk, whilst for 『弦』, the radical is 「弓」 which is the radical for the archery 'bow'. It is important to distingush from the two as they are often used to refer to the strings of the qin, or any other stringed instrument, sometimes together on the same page. However, etymologically, 『絃』 is the correct character to be used to refer to strings of the qin as the radical denotes, qin strings were made of silk (though probably etymologically incorrect for the modern metal-nylon strings). But for 『弦』, it probably denotes a string used on an instrument which requires a bow to play, such as erhu or violin. Maybe, 『弦』 can also be used to refer to metal / metal-nylon strings... [24]

Tuning

To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot (shengtou jie 『蠅頭結』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (rongkou 『絨剅』) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (zhen 『軫』). The string is dragged over the bridge (yueshan 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin 『龍齦』 dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around two legs (fengzu 『鳳足』 "phoenix feet" or yanzu 『雁足』 "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine tuned using the tuning pegs. The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 1245612 in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu 〔簡譜〕. Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d , but this should be considered do re fa so la do re, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. In fact the same tuning can also be considered as 5612356 when the third string is played as do [25]. Thus, except when accompanied by other instruments, only the pitch relations between the seven strings needs to be accurate. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus manjiao diao 〈慢角調〉 ("slackened third string") gives 1235612 and ruibin diao 〈蕤賔調〉 ("raised fifth string") gives 1245712, which is transposed to 2356123. It is important to note that in early qin music theory, the word "diao" 〔調〕 means both tuning and mode, but by the Qing period, "diao" meant tuning (of changing pitch) and "yin" 〔音〕 meant mode (of changing scales). Often before a piece, the tablature names the tuning and then the mode using traditional Chinese names: gong 《宮》 (do), shang 《商》 (re), jiao or jue 《角》 (mi), zhi 《徵》 (so), yu 《羽》 (la), or combinations thereof. [26]

There are more than 20 different tunings used in qin music, out of which only between two and four are commonly used. Some of these, however, are actually alternate names for the same tuning. A single tuning can have several different names depending on which system the composer was taught and used; an additional confusion is caused by the fact that two different tunings can share the same name. For example, huangzhong diao 〈黃鐘調〉 could mean either "lower first string and tighten fifth string" (e.g. Shenqi Mipu, etc), or normal tuning (e.g. Mei'an Qinpu). [27]

Although Chinese music is said to be pentatonic in scale, it in fact is not so strictly true. In qin music, if one examines the modes and scales, one can often find that after the first few notes, notes that are out of the pentatonic scale are used. Examples like this include pieces like Shenren Chang [Harmony Between Gods and Men] which uses a lot of "strange" notes not much heard in modern Chinese music. One might say that Chinese music was not truly pentatonic in the beginning, but became so because of standardisation. Thus, many of the more "popular" Chinese instruments such as the erhu, dizi, or pipa adopted more purely pentatonic scales and modes, whilst the qin which was secluded from such standardisations kept much of the old tradition of music. We can see from older, more ancient scores, such as Youlan using such rare notes; comparing that to a more modern piece one can hear the difference in tonality, scales and mode.

Table of common qin tunings

Note: This list is not exhaustive.

Name of Tuning (Chinese) English name Tuning method Pitch relation Relative relation Key Other names Representing melodies Listen to the scale being played
Standard
正調 Zheng Diao Original Tuning N/A C D F G A c d 5 6 1 2 3 5 6 F 宮調, 仲呂調, 黃鐘調, 角調, 羽調, 林鐘調 《平沙落鴈》, 《梅花三弄》, 《流水》, 《漁樵問答》, 《漁歌》, 《神人暢》 Listenⓘ
1 2 4 5 6 1 2 C 借調, 商調, 徵調, 商角調 《碣石調幽蘭》, 《醉漁唱晚》, 《龍翔操》, 《憶故人》
Non-standard
蕤賔調 Ruibin Diao Lush Guest Tuning Raise 5th string C D F G B♭ c d 2 3 5 6 1 2 3 B♭ 金羽, 清羽, 無射均 《瀟湘水雲》, 《陽關三曡》, 《龍翔操》, 《欸乃》 Listenⓘ
慢角調 Manjiao Diao Lowered Third-string Tuning Lower 3rd string C D E G A c d 1 2 3 5 6 1 2 C 角調, 黃鐘均, 林鐘調, 黃鐘宮 《風雷引》, 《鳳求凰》 Listenⓘ
清商調 Qingshang Diao Sharpen Re Tuning Raise 2nd, 5th and 7th strings C E♭ F G B♭ c e♭ 6 1 2 3 5 6 1 E♭ 商調, 夾鐘調, 小碧玉調, 姑洗調 《搗衣》, 《秋鴻》 Listenⓘ
慢宮調 Mangong Diao Lowered First-string Tuning Lower 1st, 3rd and 6th strings B D E G A B d 3 5 6 1 2 3 5 G 太簇調, 夷則均, 徵調 《挾仙游》, 《獲麟》 Listenⓘ
慢商調 Manshang Diao Lowered Second-string Tuning Lower 2nd string C C F G A c d 1 1 4 5 6 1 2 C None 《廣陵散》 Listenⓘ
無射調 Wuyi Diao Wuyi Tuning Raise 5th and lower 1st strings B♭ D F G B♭ c d 1 3 5 6 1 2 3 B♭ 黃鐘宮調 《大胡笳》, 《小胡笳》, 《胡笳十八拍》, 《昭君怨》 Listenⓘ
凄凉調 Qiliang Diao Cold Misery Tuning Raise 2nd and 5th strings C E♭ F G B♭ c d 2 4 5 6 1 2 3 B♭ 楚商調, 外調 《離騷》, 《澤畔吟》, 《屈原問渡》 Listenⓘ
側商調 Ceshang Diao Besides the Re Tuning Lower 3rd, 4th and 6th strings C D E F♯ A B d 7♭ 1 2 3 5 6 1 D None 《古怨》 Listenⓘ
1 2 3 4♯ 6 7 2 C
無媒調 Wumei Diao No Intermediary Tuning Lower 3rd and 6th strings C D E G A B d 1 2 3 5 6 7 2 C None 《孤舘遇神》 Listenⓘ
3 5 7 1 2 3 5 G


Playing context

The guqin is nearly always used a solo instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot compete with the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the se (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the qin. Sadly, the se has not survived into this century, though duet tablature scores for the instruments are preserved in a few qinpu, and the master qin player Wu Jinglüe was one of only a few in the 20th century who knew how to play it together with qin in duet. Lately there has been a trend to use other instruments to accompany the qin, such as the xun (ceramic ocarina), pipa (four-stringed pear-shaped lute), dizi (transverse bamboo flute), and others for more experimental purposes.

In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the xiao generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as qin xiao 「琴簫」, which is narrower than an ordinary xiao. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. To enjoy qin songs, one must learn to become accustomed to the eccentric style some players may sing their songs to, like in the case of Zha Fuxi.

Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yaji (literally "elegant gatherings"), at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin. In fact, the yaji originated as a multi-media gathering involving the four arts: qin, chess, calligraphy, and painting.

Qin aesthetics

File:Wu Jinglue.jpg
Qin player Wu Jinglüe 吳景略

When playing qin, there are many aesthetics involved. Firstly is the whole aspect of musicality. Take, for example, the second section of "Pingsha Luoyan." The first few bars contain a nao vibrato followed by a phase of sliding up and down the string, even when the sound has already become inaudible. The average person trained in music may question whether this is really 'music'. Normally, some players would pluck the string very lightly to create a very quiet sound. For some players, this plucking isn't necessary. Instead of trying to force a sound out of the string one should allow the natural sounds emit from the strings. Some players say that the sliding on the string even when the sound has disappeared is a distinctive feature in qin music. It creates a "space" or "void" in a piece, playing without playing, sound without sound. In fact, when the viewer looks at the player sliding on the string without sounds, the viewer automatically "fills in the notes" with their minds. This creates a connection between player, instrument and listener. This, of course, cannot happen when listening to a recording, as one cannot see the performer. It can also be seen as impractical in recording, as the player would want to convey sound as much as possible towards a third audience. But in fact, there is sound, the sound coming from the fingers sliding on the string. With a really good qin, silk strings, and a perfectly quiet environment, all the tones can be sounded. And since the music is more player oriented than listener oriented, and the player knows the music, he/she can hear it even if the sound is not there. And with silk strings the sliding sound might be called the qi or "life force" of the music. The really empty sounds are the pauses between notes. [28]

Qin music tends to linger on certain notes, with an emphasis on silence and timbre, giving it a meditative quality. Being an instrument historically associated with literati, its aim is Confucian (in trying to cultivate one's mind) as well as Daoist (in seeking harmony between man and nature). 「琴棋書畫」 (qin qi shu hua) refers to the Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar, wherein 『琴』 qin/music refers specifically to guqin. [This phrase is a rather late invention of the Song period (according to the Wuzhizhai Qinpu), so it is not clear how essential it was to the pedagogy of earlier scholar classes]. It is rarely used to play popular and fast tunes which are deemed to be vulgar to the instrument of the scholars. Because of this, the qin is not so popular amongst the uninitiated, and because of the decline of its popularity in the periods of political disturbances (when the qin was seen as an elitist and feudal instrument. These days, the qin is referred to as a "folk instrument" to move away from these connotations), very few people are familiar with it, even in China. However, there has been a revival of interest in recent years, especially among Westerners, as the qin embodies a philosophy which appeals to those who wish to escape the stress and confusion of the modern world.

There is much comment in qin texts decrying "vulgar" music, but this really only means that there was a lot of it around. And it is interesting to hear people decry "popular and fast tunes" and then find out their favorite qin melody is Flowing Water. By focusing only on what the scholars have idealized, people can miss a lot of the reality and beauty of pure music.

Manifestations of Qin music

Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article:

In the past, written in a lot of literature, there is discussion and analysis of what is called shengjiang 〔聲像〕 or "manifestations of sound" of the qin. These are basically single words used to describe the mood or theme of the piece. The number of these 'manifestations' are disputed. Some say only 4, some say 13-16 [29], and some say over 24. Listed in some qinpu they have very lengthy descriptions of each manifestation, going into every detail.

The most basic words used to describe qin music are, for example, Yushan school's qing 『清』, wei 『微』, dan 『淡』 and yuan 『遠』, or "pure", "profound", "light" and "distant". Another important essay on qin manifestations is Xishan Qinkuang 【谿山琴况】 which lists 24 qin manifestations in great detail [30]. This essay has several layers; some words describe the playing method, some describe ornamentation and some describe the body of the music. They also explain the union between musician and instrument and how to achieve unity with the music.

Related instruments

The Japanese ichigenkin 「一絃琴」, a monochord zither, is believed to be derived from the qin. The qin handbook Lixing Yuanya (【理性元雅】, 1618) includes some melodies for a one-string qin, and the Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu contains a picture and description of such an instrument [31]. The modern ichigenkin apparently first appeared in Japan just after that time. However, the honkyoku 〔本曲〕 (standard repertoire) of the ichigenkin today most closely resembles that of the shamisen 「三味線」.

The Korean komungo 「거문고」 may also be related, albeit distantly. Korean literati wanted to play an instrument the way their Chinese counterparts played the qin. For some reason they never took to the qin itself, instead playing the komungo, a long zither plucked with a thin stick. The repertoire was largely the komungo parts for melodies played by the court orchestra. It should be noted that another ancient Chinese zither, the zhu 「筑」, was likely plucked with a stick, so the komungo may also be related to that instrument.

Guqin in popular culture

  • In the Hong Kong fantasy serial adaptation of Fengshen Bang or Gods of Honour, the character Bi Gan plays a (historically inaccurate) qin. Another character (the Queen of the last Shang emperor) actually grabs it and smashes it on a table.
  • In the Hong Kong animated series adaptation of Shendiao Xialü or The Return of the Condor Heroes, the character Xiaolongnü plays a qin when Yang Guo first sees her. She also plays the qin again in the second season.
  • In the Zhang Yimou film Hero (2002), Xu Kuanghua plays an ancient version of the qin in the chess courtyard scene. He in fact mimes it to the music composed and played by Liu Li, formerly a professor at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. [32] It is suggested that Xu made the qin himself. [33]
  • In the film Kung Fu Hustle, the Killers' main weapon is a pseudo guqin-guzheng hybrid instrument (body structure of a qin, bridges and sound of a zheng).

Media

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Guqin.

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Solo

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With voice

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See also

Appendices

In the writing and research of this article, a variety of sources have been used, whether primary or secondary.

Some of the books below are rare and not commercially available for public purchase, especially the older ones, which may be only accessible through certain libraries and academic institutions throughout the world (please check your country's national book records on old Chinese books to see what books they have and where), or privately held. Most of the modern prints and books are available through some of the websites listed below.

The external links are generally from sites that specialise in guqin, and are often hosted by knowledgeable and well respected qin players in the field with contacts to experts and professional players, therefore they are very reliable, especially those sites of qin societies and general qin sites which is a good point of research. For reasons of space and practicality, sites which only give a brief description or passing remark about the qin will not be included.

References

Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Chinese books on qin:

  • Zhou, Ningyun (1915). Qinshu Cunmu 【琴書存目】.
A list of "existing" qinpu; most listed have never been found. Out of print.
  • Zha, Fuxi (1958). Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. ISBN 7-103-02379-4.
A "dictionary" of qin music. Lists existing qinpu, all their prefaces and afterwords, and a complete collection of full qin songs. Extremely useful. New reprint.
  • Xu, Jian (1982). Qinshi Chubian 【琴史初編】. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. ISBN 7-103-02304-2.
An outline of the basic history of the qin. New printing.
  • Li, Xiangting (1992). Tangdai Guqin Yanzou Meixue ji Yinyue Sixiang Yanjiu 【唐代古琴演奏美學及音樂思想研究】. Taipei. [34]
A research paper into the performance techniques of the qin during the Tang Dynasty.
  • Gong, Yi (1999). Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】; 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Publishers. ISBN 7-5320-6621-5
Gong Yi's teaching manual for the qin. Includes fingering and many pieces in staff notation, some with qin tablature, some with Gong Yi's new guqin staff notation form.
  • Li, Mingzhong (2000). Zhongguo Qinxue 【中國琴學】. Volume one. Shanxi: Shanxi Society Science Magazine Association.
An indepth look at Chinese qin study, finely illustrated with color pictures of qins, and black and white copies of manuscripts. Privately published work.
  • Yin, Wei (2001). Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中國琴史演義】. Yunnan: People's Publishers of Yunnan. ISBN 7-222-03206-1/I‧866
An outline of the legendary and historical stories about the qin.
  • Li, Xiangting (2004). Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng 【古琴實用教程】. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishers. ISBN 7-80667-439-X
A very good teaching manual for the qin. Step by step with every piece explained in detail. Recommended.
  • Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi (2005). Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi 【唐代陳拙論古琴指法‧姚丙炎琴學著述之一】. Beijing: Shu zhi Zhai Wenhua Co. Ltd. ISBN 988-98739-1-5.
Newly edited printing of a Tang dynasty document on finger techniques. Highly useful. In a planned series of books printing important unpublished works called Qinxue Congkan 【琴學叢刊】 ("collection of printings on qin study").
  • Wu, Zhao (2005). Jueshi Qingyin 【絕世清音】; inc. 1 CD. Suzhou: Ancient Inn of Wu Publishings. ISBN 7-80574-908-6/G‧259
An introduction to the qin, its history and culture, with short biographies of recent and contemporary players; finely illustrated. With a CD contain eight melodies by the author.

Qinpu:

  • Zhu, Quan (1425, 2001). Shenqi Mipu 【神竒秘譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80568-973-3/J‧284
The most important and earliest collection of qin tablatures. Printed in high quality binding format. Highly recommended.
  • Xu, Shangying (1673, 2005). Dahuan Ge Qinpu 【大還閣琴譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80663-288-3/J‧322
Important qinpu of the Yushan school. Contains the essay on qin manifestations, Xishan Qinkuang.
  • Zhou, Zi'an (1722, 2000). Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80568-864-8/J‧237
Important qinpu of the Qing Dynasty. Contains a set of scores, plus pictures of various qin forms and an influential list of descriptions on fingering. Recommended.
  • Chu, Fengjie (1855). Yugu Zhai Qinpu 【與古齋琴譜】. Fujian: Private publication.
A manual for making qin, with qin music theory et al. Not commercially available, only found in major libraries in the world.
  • Yang, Zongji (1910-1931, 1996). Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80568-562-5/I‧139
Large collections of material on qin study. Contains a large amount of qin lore and theory with some scores. 14 folios in 2 cloth cases.
  • Wang, Binglu (1931, 2005). Mei'an Qinpu 【楳盦珡譜】. Beijing: China Bookstore. ISBN 7-80663-297-2/J‧331
New printing of a popular qinpu to the West. Some material from previous editions have been edited out for some reason (e.g. most of the descriptions for each piece and a complete score is missing).
  • Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang (2001). Yushan Wushi Qinpu 【虞山吳氏琴譜】 The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family. Beijing: Eastern Publishings. ISBN 7-5060-1454-8/I‧78
Collected scores transcribed by the Wu family. In staff, number notation with qin tablature. Half contain lyrics. Appended at the back is a very useful list of qin fingerings in Chinese and in English. Recommended.
For full list of qinpu and more information, please see list of existing Qinpu.

Journals, newsletters and periodicals:

  • Zhongguo Huabao 【中國畫報】. July 1986.
A feature talking about the qin and its history (illustrated). Number 7 of the "Musical Instruments of China" feature series. Pages 56 and 57.
  • Beijing Guqin Reseach Association. Beijing Qin-xun 【北京琴訊】. March 2001 (volume 71). [35]

English books on qin:

  • Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica. ISBN 0-804-80869-4
The only extensive qin literature to be published in English. Out of print and very rare.
  • Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute. Tokyo: Monumenta Nipponica. ISBN 0-804-80868-6
The only English translation of Ji Kang's Qin Fu. Out of print and rare.
  • Liang, David Ming-Yueh (1972). The Chinese Ch'in Its History and Music. Chinese National Music Association / San Francico Conservatory of Music
  • Hsu, Wen-Ying (1978). The Ku'Chin. California: Wen Ying Studio, Pasadena
  • Lieberman, Fredric (1983). A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 0-295-95941-X
Lieberman's translation of the Mei'an Qinpu. Does not contain the qin tablature to be able to play any pieces. New re-print.

Non qin books (or books with a section on the qin):

  • Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. (1915, 1927, 1965). Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents. L. Davrout, S. J. (trans.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21321-8
Useful book for those who study the etymology of Chinese characters. Contains a collection of lexicons useful as a vague dictionary containing rare characters (but not all).
  • Zhang Yushu et al. (1921). Kangxi Zidian 【康熙字典】. Shanghai: Shanghai Old Books Distribution Place.
Old re-print in 60 volumes in 4 cases ("pocket-size" edition, though note the extent). One of the most important Chinese dictionaries, complied on the orders of the Kangxi emperor. Contains nearly all characters in Chinese under-the-sun (common, rare, variants, unknown, obsolete and obscure), pronunciation, with historical descriptions and entries, and a list of examples of the characters use in other literature. Has a lengthy description of the qin including ancient forms of the character.
  • Wang, Yunwu (1969). Wang Yunwu Da Cidian 【王雲五大辭典】. Hong Kong: Guanghua Book Department.
Chinese dictionary using the four corner system. used in translation in this article.
  • Herdan, Innes (trans.) (1973, 2000). 300 Tang Poems 【英譯唐詩三百首】, Yee Chiang (illus.). Taipei: The Far East Book Co., Ltd. ISBN 957-612-471-9
A very nice translation of the most read anthology of Chinese poetry. With illustrations and introductions.
  • No author (1976, 1982). (Putonghua : Yueyin) Zhonghua Xin Zidian 【（普通話‧粵音）中華新字典】. Hong Kong: Chinese Book Department, Hong Kong Section. ISBN 962-231-001-X
A modern hanyu dictionary, with traditional and simplified character comparison, and pinyin and Cantonese pronunciation. Used for translation purposes of this article.
  • T. C. Lai & Mok, Robert (1985). Jade Flute - the Story of Chinese Music. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN 0-8052-3961-8
Has a chapter on the qin.
  • Liang, David Ming-Yue (1985). Music of the Billion. New York: Heinrichshofen. ISBN 3-7959-0. H474-9
Also has a chapter on the qin.
  • Addiss, Stephen (1987). Tall Mountains and Flowing Waters. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1039-2
A book about the Japanese artist and qin player Uragami Gyokudou. Has a chapter on his qin playing.
  • Temple, Robert (1998, 1999, 2002, 2005). The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. Dr. Needham, Joseph FRS FBA (intro.). London: Prion. ISBN 1-85375-582-6
A book about the inventions and discoveries of China. Has a section which discusses the qin's contribution to the understanding of timbre.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Zhang Yushu et al.. Kangxi Zidian 【康熙字典】. Folio 28.
  2. ^ http://www.silkqin.com/11misc/lute.htm John Thompson's explanation that 'zither' is more organologically correct, and that Van Gulik's idea that the general public associates the term 'lute' as a literati instrument is not generally true as they associate the lute more with a pear-shaped instrument.
  3. ^ Yin, Wei. Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi 【中國琴史演義】. Pages 1-10.
  4. ^ http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/0908tangqinyaji/index.htm Wang Fei's site has pictures of said qin and Li Xiangting's comments.
  5. ^ Temple, Robert. The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention. Pages 206-213.
  6. ^ http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/masterpiece.php?id=65&lg=en UNESCO's official proclaimation.
  7. ^ Herdan, Innes (trans.). 300 Tang Poems 【英譯唐詩三百首】. Pages 128-129, 560-563 and 590-591.
  8. ^ Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 1, leaf <gold> 18-28.
  9. ^ Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang. Yushan Wushi Qinpu 【虞山吳氏琴譜】 The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family. Pages 507-526.
  10. ^ Wang, Binglu. Mei'an Qinpu 【楳盦珡譜】. Volume 1 leaves 18-24.
  11. ^ Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi. Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi 【唐代陳拙論古琴指法‧姚丙炎琴學著述之一】.
  12. ^ Zhu, Quan. Shenqi Mipu 【神竒秘譜】.
  13. ^ Zha, Fuxi. Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Pages 3-44.
  14. ^ Beijing Guqin Reseach Association. Beijing Qin-xun 【北京琴訊】. March 2001 (volume 71). Pages 1, 2 and 4.
  15. ^ Gong, Yi. Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】. Pages 38-42.
  16. ^ http://web.pdx.edu/~candy/qin/index.html Explains the origins and usage of the new notation program.
  17. ^ http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletter/qinexamlist.html A list of Guqin pieces for the Guqin certificate examinations in China. It lists the pieces by grade which is useful tool for the learner of qin.
  18. ^ http://www.silkqin.com/08anal/dapu.htm A description of dapu by John Thompson.
  19. ^ Chu, Fengjie. Yugu Zhai Qinpu 【與古齋琴譜】. Volume 2 Chapter 2.
  20. ^ Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 2, leaves 1-14.
  21. ^ Chu, Fengjie. Yugu Zhai Qinpu 【與古齋琴譜】. Volume 3 Chapter 7.
  22. ^ http://www.silkqin.com/03qobj/silk.htm About the properties of silk and it's use in strings for the qin.
  23. ^ Gong, Yi. Guqin Yanzhoufa 【古琴演奏法】. Page 11 and 13.
  24. ^ Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents. Pages 701, 758-759.
  25. ^ Li, Xiangting. Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng 【古琴實用教程】. Page 105.
  26. ^ Lieberman, Fredric. A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Pages 29-34.
  27. ^ Yang, Zongji. Qinxue Congshu 【琴學叢書】. Volume 8, folio 2, leaves 18-21.
  28. ^ http://www.ukchinesemusic.com/londonyoulanqin/yaji_20040905.htm A summary of Yip Mingwei's talk on 'Nurturing Life', describing her views about prolonged vibrato, et al.
  29. ^ Li, Xiangting. Tangdai Guqin Yanzou Meixue ji Yinyue Sixiang Yanjiu 【唐代古琴演奏美學及音樂思想研究】. Chapter one: sections 1-13.
  30. ^ Xu, Shangying. Dahuan Ge Qinpu 【大還閣琴譜】. Folio 1.
  31. ^ Zhou, Zi'an. Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu 【五知齋琴譜】. Volume 1, folio 2, leaf 10.
  32. ^ http://www.china.org.cn/english/NM-e/51029.htm An article with brief information on Liu Li's involvement in the film Hero.
  33. ^ http://www.chinainfotravel.com/Guqin_Master_Xu_Kuanghua_1104.htm A short anecdote of Xu Kuanghua's involvement in the film Hero.
  34. ^ http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/lixiangtingtangbookfullversion_files/lixiangtingtangbookfullversion.htm Full online version of Li Xiangting's book.
  35. ^ http://www.chineseculture.net/guqin/newsletters/0301.pdf Online PDF version of the newsletter.

External links

Qin society sites

General Qin sites

Sites dealing with qin notation and tablature

Other specialist Qin sites

Sites with a little information on Qin

Sites with music samples

News articles

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