Kannada literature

The earliest full-length Kannada inscription – the Halmidi inscription, dated 450 CE

Kannada literature is the body of literature written in Kannada: a language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka, and written using the Kannada script. The history of Kannada literature, which spans 15 centuries, is usually divided into three phases: ancient, medieval and modern.

From the 6th century beginning and up to the 12th century, the Kannada region was dominated by dynasties such as the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas; dynasties that were either Jain or gave ample patronage to the faith. As a result, Kannada literature of the period was almost entirely cultivated by Jains whose works were steeped in Jain literary traditions. From the 12th century, the Veerashaiva movement ushered in a new stream of literature which flourished alongside the Jain works. The rise of the Vijayanagara empire in the 14th century saw a renaissance of sorts with the arrival of Vaishnava literature—that of the Haridasas in particular.

The writings of the medieval period drew greatly from the socio-religious themes in Jainism, Veerashaivism and Vaishnavism and also included works on secular subjects. Although the oldest surviving work of this corpus, the Kavirajamarga which deals with rhetoric, poetics and grammar, has been dated to 850 CE, it is widely accepted that a considerable volume of literature had existed for a few centuries prior to it.

After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in the 16th century, the seat of patronage shifted to the Mysore court of the Wodeyar dynasty. Kannada literature continued to flourish under the Mysore rulers, many of whom were themselves accomplished scholars of the fine arts. From the 19th century, the influence of English literature and the enthusiastic support of the Wodeyars' ushered in the era of modern literature which saw the introduction of new genre such as the prose narrative, the essay, the novel and the short story. Over the past two centuries, Kannada writers have produced works of merit, resulting in numerous prestigious awards.

Early attestations

The earliest example of a full-length Kannada inscription in verse can be found in a Kadamba royal edict called the Halmidi inscription, dated 450 CE, while the Kappe Arabhatta record of the 7th century is the earliest surviving record of Kannada poetry.

Though the earliest surviving Kannada literary work, Kavirajamarga ("Royal Path for Poets") is dated to 850 CE, references are made in it to earlier writers such as Vimalachandra (c. 777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu and Durvinita and poets such as Srivijaya, Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (634) and Lokapala. It also refers to compositions that were peculiar to Kannada: the chattana and the bedande (poems comprising several stanzas that were meant to be sung with the optional use of a musical instrument). Early writers of Kannada literature whose works are known are Syamakundacharya (650), who authored the Prabhrita, and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), who wrote the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a 96,000-verse commentary on logic.

Ascribed to the 7th or 8th century is the Karnatheshwara Katha, a eulogy of the well-known Chalukya King Pulakesi II. The Gajashtaka, a lost ashtaka (eight line verse) composition, was authored by King Shivamara II in 800. It gained popularity in its time by its use in two folk songs, the ovanige and the onakevadu, compositions that were meant to be sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit (ovam).

In the 9th century, Srivijaya, a court poet of Amoghavarsha I wrote the Chandraprabha Purana. During the same period, the Digambara Jain poet Asaga (or Asoka) authored, among other writings, the Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya and the Varadamana Charitra. His works have been eulogised by later poets, although none of his works are available today. The earliest known prosody in Kannada, Gunagankiyam, has been referenced in a Tamil work dated to 10th century or earlier (Yapparungalakkarigai by Amritasagara). Gunanandi (c. 900) is known to have been an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose. Around 900, Gunavarma I wrote the Sudraka and Harivamsa (also known as Neminatha Purana). In Sudraka he compared his patron, Ganga king Ereganga Neetimarga II, to a noted king called Sudraka.

Content and genre

Inscribed handwriting of 10th-century poet Ranna reads Kavi Ratna (gem among poets) in Shravanabelagola

In the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were predominantly of the Jain and Veerashaiva faith. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century, although a few works by Veerashaivas from that period are available. Jain authors wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other personages important to the Jain religion. The Veerashaiva writers accounted for devotees of the Hindu God Shiva, his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. Veerashaiva poets belonging to the Vachana tradition advanced the philosophy of Basavanna from the 12th century.

The period between the 13th and 15th centuries saw a decline in Jain writings and an increase in the writings of the Veerashaiva and contributions from some Vaishnava writers. Thereafter, Kannada literature has been dominated by Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writers. Vaishnava writers treated of the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata, as well as the Vedanta and other subjects from the Hindu puranic traditions. From the 15th century, Haridasa poets heralded the age of devotional songs, which they propagated using music as the medium. Writings on secular subjects had remained popular throughout this period.

An important change during the Bhakti (devotion) period starting from the 12th century was the casting aside of the concept of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the vachana and kirthane, traditions that were more acceptable to the common man. During this period, writing classics eulogising kings, commanders and spiritual heroes was on the wane with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with singability being its hallmark, although some poets continued to use the ancient champu form of writing as late as the 17th century.

The most popular Sanskritic metre used to write Kannada literature from the 9th century onwards was the champu (poems in verse of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose, also known as champu-kavya), although it steadily fell into disuse from the 12th century. Other Sanskritic metres that were employed were the saptapadi (seven line verse), the ashtaka (eight line verse) and the shataka (hundred-line verse). There have been numerous translations of Sanskrit writings into Kannada and to a lesser extent, the other way round. The medieval period saw the development of literary metres indigenous to the Kannada language. These included the tripadi (three-line verse, in use from 7th century), one of the oldest native metres; the shatpadi (six-line verse, in use from 1165), of which six types exist; the ragale (lyrical narrative compositions, in use from 1160); the sangatya (compositions meant to be sung with a musical instrument, in use from 1232) and the akkara which came to be adopted in some Telugu writings. Such interactions with Tamil literature are however few and far apart.

Though religious literature was prominent, various literary genres such as romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables, musical treatises and musical compositions were popular. A wealth of literature dealing in subjects such as mathematics, sciences such as astronomy, meteorology, veterinary science and medicine, astrology, grammar, logic, philosophy, poetry, prosody, drama, rhetoric, chronicles, biography, history, and cuisine, as well as dictionaries and encyclopedias are available.

Kannada literature of this period was mainly written on palm leaves. However, more than 30,000 Kannada inscriptions known as shilashasana (stone inscriptions) and tamrashasana (copper plate inscriptions) have been found in modern Karnataka and are considered important to the study of its literary developments. The Jura (Jabalpur) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada composition, containing poetic diction in kanda (a group of stanzas or chapters) metre. Elegiac poetry on hundreds of veeragallu and maastigallu (hero stones) written by unknown poets in the kanda and the vritta (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives and the bravery of women who performed sati.

The process of evolution from old Kannada literature to one that satisfied modern sensibilities gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by modern literatures in other languages, especially English. Modern English education and liberal democratic values were mainly responsible for this change. Subjected to criticism by Christian missionaries, writers were quick to see weaknesses in the ancient Hindu society. This resulted in a longing for social change, while the need to cling to all that was good in the past tradition was very evident. Modernisation of Kannada prose resulted in new genres such as the short story, the novel, the literary criticism, the essay and the dramatic literature.

Medieval era

Classical period

Main articles: Rashtrakuta literature, Western Ganga literature, and Western Chalukya literature

Inscribed handwriting of 10th century Kannada poet Chavundaraya in Shravanabelagola

Rashtrakuta court

The reign of the imperial Rashtrakutas and their powerful feudatory, the Gangas, marks the beginning of the classical period of writings in the Kannada language under royal patronage and the end of the age of Sanskrit epics.

Kavirajamarga, written during this period, is a treatise on the Kannada speaking people, their poetry and their language. A portion of the writing qualifies as a practical grammar because it describes the defective and corrective examples (the "do's and dont's") of versification. Evident in this writing is the emphasis on the adoption of Sanskritic models while retaining elements of local literary traditions, a style that prevailed in Kannada literature throughout the classical period. Although some historians credit Kavirajamarga to the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I, a widely held view is that the book may have been inspired by the king and co-authored or authored in full by Srivijaya, a court poet.

The earliest existing prose piece in old Kannada is the Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya. It contains 19 lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as the "Sage and the Monkey". Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha Kosha, it is about Jain tenets and describes issues of rebirth, karma, the plight of humans on earth, and social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstition, and the condition of women in society.

This is followed by the 10th-century Jain writers who heralded the age of classical Kannada: Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, who are collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature". Pampa, who wrote the Adipurana in 941, is regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers. Written in champu style, Adipurana narrates the life history of the first Jain Thirtankar, Rishabhadeva. In this unique work of spiritual heroism, the soul moves through a series of births before attaining emancipation. The quest in this spiritual saga, as in many others, is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of life and death. Pampa's other classic Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata, 941), is the author's version of the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. The story differs from other earlier versions of the epic in that Arjuna alone is the hero, not the other Pandava brothers, and Draupadi is solely Arjuna's wife. The author underplays the role of the Hindu god Krishna and favourably compares his patron king Chalukya Arikesari (a Rashtrakuta feudatory) to Arjuna, while casting a lofty and noble image of Karna and the Kaurava prince Duryodhana.

Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III, wrote Santipurana (950), a biography of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi ("supreme poet in two languages") for his command of both Kannada and Sanskrit. Although Sri Ponna borrowed significantly from Kalidasa's earlier works, his Santipurana is considered an important Jain purana.

Poetic Inscription in old Kannada by Jain poet Boppana (1180 CE) at Shravanabelagola

Chalukya court

From the late 10th century, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the Deccan, the Western Chalukyas and their feudatories: the Hoysalas, the southern Kalachuris, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and Silharas of Karad. The skill of Kannada poets was appreciated in distant lands. King Bhoja of Malwa in central India presented Nagavarma I, the writer of prosody and romance classics, with horses as a mark of his admiration.

Ranna, born into a family of bangle sellers in Mudhol (modern Bagalkot district), was the court poet of the Western Chalukya kings Tailapa II and Satyasraya. He was also patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe. Ranna reached his zenith of poetic grace in Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or "Conflict of Clubs'", 982) while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and the Kaurava prince Duryodhana in his version of the Mahabharata epic.

Unlike Pampa who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogised his patron King Satyasraya and favourably compared him to Bhima, whom he coronated at the end of the Mahabharata war. In a writing that contains poignant pieces of elegy, Ranna's description of the heart-rendering lamentation of Duryodhana (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") on seeing the slain bodies of his kin, his loyal friend Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu is worthy of mention. The dramatic effect given by the writing, the powerful language, the diction and the style maintained through out the narration has earned Ranna a place among the immortals of Kannada literature. His other well-known writing is the Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha. Ranna was bestowed the title Kavi Chakravathi ("Emperor among poets") by his patron king.

Among grammarians, Nagavarma-II, Katakacharya (poet laureate) of the Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions. His works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among his other writings, the Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric and the Karnataka Bhashabhushana (1145) on grammar are historically significant. However, the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam (1042), which has been ascribed by some scholars to Nagavarma II, has created uncertainty about his actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by King Jayasimha II.

Hoysala period

Main article: Hoysala literature

Hero stone (virgal) with old Kannada elegiac inscription (1220) at the Ishwara temple in Arasikere, Karnataka

In the late 12th century, the Hoysalas, a powerful hill tribe from the Malnad region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertainty in the Deccan to gain dominance in the region south of the Krishna River in southern India. A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as Janna, Harihara, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanka, Keshiraja and others.

Two renowned philosophers who lived during this time, Ramanujacharya and Madhvacharya, influenced the culture of the region. The conversion of the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana in early 12th century from Jainism to Vaishnavism was to later prove a setback to Jain literature. In the decades to follow, Jain writers faced competition from the Veerashaivas, and from the 15th century, from the writers of the Vaishnava cadre. These events changed the literary landscape of the Kannada-speaking region forever.

Poet Harihara (or Harisvara) came from a family of karnikas (accountants), one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition, and worked under the patronage of King Narasimha I. He wrote the Girijakalyana in the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. He is credited with more than 100 poems in ragale metre, called the Nambiyanana ragale (or Shivaganada ragale, 1160) praising the saint Nambiyana and Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva). For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific "poet of exuberance" (utsava kavi).

Harihara's nephew, Raghavanka (1165), was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his epic Harishchandra Kavya, considered a classic despite occasionally violating strict rules of Kannada grammar. Drawing on his skill as a dramatist, Raghavanka's story of King Harishchandra vividly describes the clash of personalities between sage Vishvamitra and sage Vashisht and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that this interpretation of the story is unique to Kannada literature. The writing is an original both in tradition and inspiration. In addition to Hoysala patronage, Raghavanka was honoured by Kakatiya king Prataparudra I.

Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well-known Brahminical writer, under the patronage of Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) in the champu style, relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura.

In 1209, the Jain scholar and army commander Janna wrote Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of the stories, a king intended to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to Mariamma, a local deity. After hearing the boys' tale, the king is moved to release them and renounce the practice of human sacrifice. In honour of this work, Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ("Emperor among poets") from King Veera Ballala II. His other classic, Anathanatha Purana (1230), deals with the life of the 14th Tirthankar Ananthanatha.

Vijayanagara period

Main article: Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire

Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (1398)

The 14th century saw major upheavals in geo-politics of southern India with Muslim empires invading from the north. The Vijayanagara Empire stood as a bulwark against these invasions and ensured an atmosphere conducive to the fine arts. In a golden age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writers was fierce and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.

To this period belonged Kumara Vyasa (the pen name of Naranappa), a doyen of medieval epic poets and one the most influential Vaishnava poets of the time. He was particularly known for his sophisticated use of metaphors and had even earned the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti ("Emperor of the land of Metaphors"). In 1430, he wrote the Gadugina Bharata, popularly known as Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata in the Vyasa tradition. The work is a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic Mahabharata and emphasises the divinity and grace of the Lord Krishna, portraying all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles. An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humour exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old to modern and heralds a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration. The remaining parvas (chapters) of the epic were translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king.

The first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana was by Kumara Valmiki (1500) and is called Torave Ramayana. According to the author, the epic he wrote merely narrated God Shiva's conversation with his consort Parvati. This writing has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana, which has made use of its verses while enacting episodes from the great epic. In this version of the epic, King Ravana is depicted as one of the suitors at Sita's Swayamvara (lit. a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). His failure at winning the bride's hand results in jealousy towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses, Hanuman, for all his services to Rama, is exalted to the status of "the next creator". Towards the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realised that his adversery is none other than the God Vishnu and hastened to die at his hands to achieve salvation.

Chamarasa, a Veerashaiva poet, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His eulogy of the saint Allama Prabhu, titled Prabhulinga Lile (1430), was later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king. In the story, the saint was considered an incarnation of Hindu God Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi.

Interaction between Kannada and Telugu literatures, a trend which had begun in the Hoysala period, increased. Translations of classics from Kannada to Telugu and vice versa became popular. Well known bilingual poets of this period were Bhima Kavi, Piduparti Somanatha and Nilakanthacharya. In fact, so well versed in Kannada were some Telugu poets, including Dhurjati, that they freely used many Kannada terms in their Telugu writings. The notable writer Srinatha even called his Telugu, "Kannada". This process of interaction between the two languages continued into the 19th century in the form of translations by bilingual writers.

Mystic literature

Main articles: Haridasa, Haridasas and Carnatic music, Dasa Sahitya, Lingayatism, and Basavanna

Veerashaiva

Mausoleum (Samadhi) of 12th-century Kannada poet Basavanna at Kudala Sangama

In the later part of the 12th century, the Kalachuris' succeeded in overthrowing their overlords, the Western Chalukyas, and annexing the capital Kalyani. In this turbulent period, a revolt against the existing social order in the Hindu society saw the spread of a new religious faith called Veerashaivism (also called Lingayatism). Some of the followers of this faith wrote literature called Vachana Sahitya ("Vachana literature") or Sharana Sahitya ("literature of the devotees"). This literature consisted of a unique and native form of poetry in free verse called Vachana.

Basavanna (or Basava, 1160), the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement. A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ("hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences. Here, they expressed their devotion to God Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches, rituals and book learning, displaying a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato.

A statue of 12th-century social reformer and Kannada poet, Basavanna

Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Channabasava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama (1150), and Kondaguli Kesiraja are the best known among more than 300 poets (called Vachanakaras) in this genre. Prominent among the 33 women poets was Akka Mahadevi, who in addition to poetry is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi. Credited to Siddharama are writings in tripadi metre and 1,379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems).

The assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the sharanas (devotees) from Kalyani caused a temporary set back to this order. This curtailed further growth of Vachana poetry until the 15th century when another wave of writings began under the patronage of the rulers of Vijayanagara. An offshoot of the Veerashaiva faith and an attempt to synthesise it with the advaitha (monistic) philosophy of Adi Shankara took shape. A chieftain called Nijaguna Shivayogi is considered the originator of this new philosophy called Kaivalya. A prolific writer, he composed devotional songs collectively known as the Kaivalya sahitya (or Tattva Padagalu, literally "songs of the pathway to emancipation"). Shivayogi's songs were reflective, philosophical and concerned with Yoga. Among his other writings, a scientific encyclopaedia called the Vivekachintamani is considered of high value, an indication of which is its translation into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The writing categorises 1,500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics, dance and drama, musicology and erotics.

Other well-known poet saints include Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara, Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century and Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.

Vaishnava

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Purandara Dasa, "Father of Carnatic music"

The Vaishnava Bhakti (devotional) movement involving well-known Haridasas' (devotee saints) of that time made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature; the result of this movement was a body of literature called Haridasa Sahtiya ("Haridasa literature"). Influenced by the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The Haridasas' conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through simple Kannada language to the common man in the form of devaranamas and kirthanas (devotional songs in praise of god). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha, Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa and others. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a prominent saint from distant Bengal, visited the region in 1510, further stimulating the devotional movement.

Purandara Dasa (1484–1564), a wandering bard, is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages (but only about 1,000 songs are known today). Composed in various ragas, and often ending with a salutation to the Hindu deity Vittala, his compositions presented the essence of the Upanishads and the Puranas in simple, yet expressive language. He also devised a system by which the the common man could learn Carnatic music, and codified the musical composition forms svaravalis, alankaras and geethams. Owing to such contributions, Purandara Dasa earned the honorific Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha ("Father of Carnatic Music"). In the 18th and the 19th centuries, carnatic music was popularised in modern Tamil Nadu by several prominent composers while its instrumental form made notable progress in Mysore.

Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509–1609) of Kaginele (in modern Haveri district) was an ascetic and spiritual seeker who authored important writings such as Mohanatarangini ("River of Delight"), which narrates the story of the Hindu God Krishna in sangatya metre; Nrisimhastava, a work dealing with glory of God Narasimha; Nalacharita noted for its narration; and Hari Bhaktisara, a spontaneous writing on devotion in shatpadi metre. The latter writing, which deals with niti (morals), bhakti (devotion) and vairagya (renunciation) has become popular as a standard book of learning for children. Kanaka Dasa authored a unique allegorical poem titled Ramadhanya Charitre ("Story of Rama's Chosen Grain"), which exalts ragi over rice. Apart from these classics, about 240 songs written by the Kanaka Dasa are available today.

The Haridasa movement became active again from the 17th century through 19th century, producing as many as 300 poets in this genre; well-known among them are Vijaya Dasa (1682–1755), Gopala Dasa (1721–1769), Jagannatha Dasa (1728–1809), Mahipathi Dasa (1750), Helavanakatte Giriamma and others. Over a period of time, these devotional songs inspired a form of religious and didactic performing art of the Vaishnava people called the Harikatha ("Stories of Hari"). Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Veerashaiva faith who popularised the Shivakatha ("Stories of Shiva").

Mysore period

Main articles: Literature of the Kingdom of Mysore and Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore

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Maharaja and poet-Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794–1868)

With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Kingdom of Mysore rose to power in the southern Karnataka region. The Mysore court was adorned by eminent writers, composers and musicians. The kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century.

To king Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, who went by the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam ("Expert in literature") is ascribed the Geetha Gopala, a well-known treatise on music. Although inspired by Jayadeva's Geetha Govinda in Sanskrit, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.

Also dated to this period is Sarvajna (lit. "The all knowing") – a mendicant Veerashaiva poet who left a deep imprint on Kannada literature. His didactic Vachanas, numbering about 2000 penned in the tripadi metre constitute some of Kannada's most celebrated works. Though very little is known about the author himself, the first 14 of a series of poems written by him ("Reminiscences of Birth") offer some clues about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age. His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest as a drifter. The pithy Vachanas contain his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world. He was neither patronised by royalty nor did he write for fame; his main aim was to instruct people about morality. All his poems end with "Sarvajna".

A well-known story-teller and a dramatist, the Brahmin author Lakshmisa's writing is dated to the mid 16th or late 17th century. The Jaimini Bharata, the poet's Kannada version of the epic Mahabharata written in shatpadi metre, is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A collection of stories, the poem contains the well-known tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author succeeds in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times.

Maharaja and writer, Jayachamaraja Wodeyar (1940–1947) with Queen Elizabeth II

The period also saw advances in the field of Kannada theatre. Though evidence from inscriptions and epics dating it to the 12th century or earlier are available, modern Kannada theatre is traced to the rise of Yakshagana (a type of field play), which from available manuscripts is dated to the 16th century.. It was the rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673–1714) that heralded the golden age of Yakshagana compositions. A polyglot, he authored 14 Yakshaganas in various languages, although all are written in the Kannada script. He is credited with the earliest Yakshaganas that included sangeeta (music), nataka (drama) and natya (dance).

Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794–1868), the ruler of the princely state of Mysore, was another prolific writer, for which he was called Abhinava Bhoja ("Modern Bhoja"). More than 40 writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, is popular. His reign signalled the shift from classical genres to modern literature which was to be complemented by the efforts of contemporary British evangelists, among others.

Modern era

Main article: Modern Kannada literature

Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903), Christian missionary and Kannada writer

The nascent beginnings of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets attempted to steer away from the ancient champu form of prose and popularise prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) can be considered as the first modern novel before English influence on Kannada.

The impetus to modern literature also came from the onset of western style of education and the Christian missionaries who relied on the local language to propagate their gospel. The arrival of the printing press acted as a catalyst in this process. Among the several early Kannada publications, the first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel (1894) is noteworthy. Another prominent Christian missionary, Hermann Mögling, was responsible for publishing Kannada classics under a series called Bibliotheca Carnataca during 1848–1853 and the first-ever Kannada newspaper called Mangalore Samachara in 1843. British officers like B. L. Rice and J. H. Fleet edited and published critical editions of surviving literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and inscriptions.

The late nineteenth century was a period of extensive spadework and progress towards a standardisation of prose and a push towards original works in prose narratives gained momentum. This effort was facilitated in great measure by translations of works from English, Sanskrit and other Indian languages like Marathi and Bengali, where substantial progress had already been made. Lakshman Gadagkar's Suryakantha (1892) and Gulvadi Venkata Rao (1899) Indira Bai signalled the beginnings of an era of modern literature where the language and its aesthetics moved away from the highly stylised mores of archaic Kannada to modern prose which brought with it a profusion of new genres like the novel, essay, literary criticism and drama.

Navodaya - A period of awakening

Epic writer and novelist Kuvempu (1904–1994), Karnataka Ratna ("Gem of Karnataka")

File:Shivaramakaranth.jpg

Poet, playwright and novelist Shivarama Karanth (1902–1997)

At the turn of the century, B. M. Srikantaiah ('B. M. Sri'), regarded by some as the "Father of modern Kannada literature", gave the call for a new era of writing original works in modern Kannada while also stressing on moving away from old Kannada. This paradigmatic shift came to be called as the Navodaya (lit. 'A new rise') period - a period of awakening. His English Geethagalu ("English Songs") - a collection of poems set the tone for an age of prolificacy in Kannada literature. Translations were rife but original and seminal works which drew greatly native and folk traditions also emerged. The subjects veered from discussing kings and gods to pursuits more humanistic and secular. Several forms of western literature, the novel and the short story in particular, forayed into Kannada. The novel found an early champion in Shivaram Karanth (subsequently a Jnanapeeth awardee) while another prominent writer, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar, is credited with laying the foundation for a generation of short-story tellers with his Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu ("A few Short Stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short Stories", 1924).

The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T. P. Kailasam, a towering personality in the field, with his Tollu Gatti ("The Hollow and the Solid", 1918). Kailasam followed this with Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra"), a critic on the dowry system in marriage. His plays were mainly concerned with problems affecting middle class Brahmin families: the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women.

While the first quarter of the century can be seen as a period of experiment and innovation, the succeeding quarter was one of creative achievement. This period saw the rise of acclaimed lyricists whose poetics combined the mystic poetry of the Vachanas and Kirthanas of medieval times and the native folk songs of oral traditions, with influences from modern English romantics. D. R. Bendre with his collection of 27 poems, including such masterpieces as Gari ("Wing", 1932), Nadaleela (1938) and Sakhigeetha (1940) is perhaps the most outstanding of modern Kannada lyricists. They covered a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor.

Kuvempu, who would subsequently become Kannada's first Jnanpith awardee, showed his brilliance in using the blank verse in his magnum opus Sri Ramayana Darshanam (1949). This work marks the beginning of modern Kannada epic poetry. The work abounds in metaphors and similes and brings home the thought that all living beings will eventually evolve into perfect beings. Masti's Navaratri and P. T. Narasimhachar's Hanathe are other notable works of the period. D. V. Gundappa's Mankuthimmana Kagga ("Dull Thimma's Rigmarole", 1943) comes closest in comparison to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna. A celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, K. S. Narasimhaswamy won critical acclaim for Mysore Mallige ("Mysore Jasmine", 1942), a description of the bliss of everyday marital life.

The period witnessed the coming of age of the novel with the likes of Karanth (Chomana Dudi, 1933), Masti (Subbanna, 1928) and Kuvempu ("Subbamma Heggadathi of Kanur", 1936) leading the charge. Other notable works of the period included Masti also dominated the field of short stories Shivarama Karanth's first play was Garbhagudi ("Sanctum", 1932), which decries the exploitation of society in the name of religion.

Govinda Pai depicted an authentic Christian ambience in Golgotha (1931). Considered a unique Christian work, Pai narrates the story in detail, from Christ being taken to Pontius Pilate by a hostile group of Jews demanding his death to the events leading to his crucifixion at Golgotha. The success of this work encouraged Pai to follow with three panegyrics in 1947; Vaishakhi, Prabhasa and Dehali, narrating the last days of the Buddha, God Krishna and Gandhi respectively. His Hebberalu ("Thumb", 1946) dramatises the story of Drona and Ekalavya, characters from the epic Mahabharata.

V. K. Gokak, who was educated in Oxford, established himself as an important contributor to poetics, criticism, drama and the novel in Kannada, with no fewer than 55 books to his credit. His first novel, Ijjodu ("Misalliance", 1935) dwells on marital problems caused by sexual incompatibility. His short stay in England resulted in the generation of Samudrageetegalu ("Sea songs", 1940) and Samudradacheyinda ("From Beyond the Seas", 1940), the latter being a travelogue on his experiences there. His notable epic, Bharata Sindhu Rashmi runs to 35,000 lines with the introduction in English. Gopalakrishna Adiga describes the joy of political independence in Kattuvevu Navu ("We Shall Build", 1948), a longing for spiritual values in Mohana Murali (1944) and the importance of individual freedom in Samaja Bhairava.

Late Navodaya

Short story writer Masti Venkatesha Iyengar (1891–1986)

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Poet, playwright and novelist V. K. Gokak (1909–1992)

Even as the Navodaya waxed, a new movement of the Pragatishila (progressives) led by the prolific novelist A. N. Krishna Rao (Anakru) gained momentum in the early forties. A left-leaning school, it contended that literature must be an instrument of social revolution and charged the Navodaya as a product of aesthetes, too puritanical to be of any social relevance. This movement drew several established and young writers into its fold and while it produced no poetry or drama of special merit, its contributions to short story and novel was indeed appreciable. Also to its credit, this movement broadened the horizons for the reader as everyday life, rural themes and the common man became subjects which were dealt with extensively in the works produced during this period. The language was less inhibited and made generous use of colloquialism and slang. Anakru himself was a prolific writer of novels but the best works of this school are attributed to T. R. Subba Rao (Ta Ra Su), Basavaraju Kattimani and Niranjana. T. R. Subba Rao (Ta Ra Su) initially wrote short stories in the style, although his talent and consequent popularity was for his novels. His early novels, Purushavatara and Munjavininda Munjavu concerned the problems of the underprivileged, the downtrodden and the outcaste. Best known among his novels—some of whose plots are centred on his native Chitradurga—are Masanada Hoovu ("Flower from a cemetery"), a story about the plight of prostitutes, and historicals such as Durgasthamana and Hamsa Gite ("Swan Song"), a story about a dedicated musician of the late 18th century during annexation of Chitradurga by Tipu sultan.

Marked as its influence may well have been, the Pragatishila wave proved to be short-lived and was already in decline by the close of the fifties. Legends of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the Navodaya style. In poetry, D. R. Bendre's Naku Tanti ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's Aniketana (1964) are stand out. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in Indilla Nale (1965). Navodaya-style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Shivarama Karanth's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji's visions", 1968), where the author explores the origins of mans' faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every strata of society.

Masti Venkatesh Iyengar's two classic novels of this era were Channabasavanayaka (1950), which describe the defeat of Bidanur's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka's coast) by Haider Ali in the late 18th century, and Chickavirarajendra (1950), which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of Coorg ruled by King Chikka Virarajendra to the British East India Company. The common theme in both works is the despotism and tyranny of the incumbent native rulers resulting in the intervention of a foreign power, which appeared on the scene to restore order, but had its own imperialistic intentions.

A charismatic young writer, S. L. Bhyrappa made his presence felt from the 1960s with his first novel Dharmasri, although it was his Vamsavriksha ("Family Tree", 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long-held values. The protagonist's young and widowed daughter-in-law wishes to re-marry, putting his family tradition at risk. His best was yet to come with Grihabhanga ("Breaking of a Home", 1970), a story of a woman who tries in vain to survive under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language. His other important novel is Parva, a major work in Kannada fiction acclaimed as an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.

Navya

At the turn of the fifties, even as the Pragatishila merged back into the Navodaya mainstream, a new modernist school of writing called Navya emerged. Though formally inaugurated by V. K. Gokak's with his Navya Kavitegalu ("Modern Poems", 1950), it was Gopalakrishna Adiga who best exemplified the ethos of the movement. Poetry and later the short story became the most effective vehicles of the movement and with the passing of the Gandhian era and its influences, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived. The Navya writers questioned the time-honoured standards of plot of the Navodaya; life was seen not as a pursuance of already existing values, but as an introspective search for them and were sometimes narrated in stream of consciousness technique. Events and details were increasingly treated metaphorically and the short story grew closer to poetry. Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this expression with his Nadedu Banda Dari ("The Path Traversed", 1952) where he sought inspiration from T. S. Eliot and W. H. Auden. His other well-known poems include Gondalapura ("Pandemonium", 1954) and Bhoota (1959).

G. S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period with Mumbai Jataka ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966) which takes a closer look at urbanised society in Mumbai. A protégé of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa gained fame at the peak of the popularity of romantic poems with his Samagma ("Songs of Equanimity", 1951), poems that are distinguished by an idealistic bend. He continued to produce more poems in the same vein, such as Cheluvu Olavu ("Beauty and Truth", 1953) and Devashilpa ("Divine Sculpture", 1959), although in his later poems a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god's creation is seen. His critical essay, Anuranana (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets.

Lyricist, D. R. Bendre (1896–1981)

K. S. Narasimhaswamy continued to be prominent in this era, writing such landmark poems as Silalate ("The Sculptured Creeper", 1958), Tereda Bagilu ("The Open Door", 1972), Malligeya Male ("Jasmine Garland", 1986), Idadiru Nanna Ninna Simhasanada Mele ("Place me not on your Throne") and Gadiyaradangadiya Munde ("Before the Clock Shop"). Among the most well-known of later generation Navya poets are Chandrashekhara Kambar, Chandrashekar Patil, P. Lankesh, and K. S. Nissar Ahmed.

Outstanding playwrights from this period are Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad's Tughlaq (1964) portrays violence created by idealism gone astray. Considered an important creation in Kannada theatre, the play depicts the 14th-century Sultan of Delhi, Mohammad Tughlaq in contrasting styles; a tyrannical and whimsical ruler and at the same time, an idealist who sought the best for his subjects. Most plays written by Karnad have either history or mythology as their theme, with a focus on their relevance to modern society.

The most acclaimed classic in the genre of novel was Samaskara by U.R.Anantha Murthy (1965). The novel narrates the search for a new identity and values by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who had sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his heretic adversary. Another notable work is the Swarupa (1966) by Poornachandra Tejaswi. Anantha Murthy's Prasne (1963) contains his best collection of short stories including Ghatashraddha, which describes the tragedy that befell a young pregnant widow, from the point of view of a boy. His collection Mouni (1973) includes the stories Navilugulu ("Peacocks") and Clip Joint.

The Navya movement was not without its critics. The doubts, dilemmas and indecisions in every step of the plot resulted in increasingly sophisticated and complex narrations and this turned off several readers. It was derided as an intellectual exercise of the middle class intelligentsia and in its extreme sophistication, it had lost its touch with realities of life. This led to a gradual waning of the Navya school and was supplanted by emerging waves of Navyottara, the Bandaya (protest) and Dalit schools .

Post-modern trends

From the early 1970s, a change is seen in the output of novels and stories as an anti-Navya reaction by writers, many of who were themselves Navya writers. This genre was called Navyottara and sought to fulfill a more socially responsible role. Most well-known in this form of writing are Poornachandra Tejaswi and Devanur Mahadeva. Tejaswi moved away from his initial foray in poetry to writing novels, a move that won him accolades in the form of the "most creative novel of the year" for his Karvalo in 1980 and Chidambara Rahasya in 1985.

Modernisation aided by westernisation continues to inform sensibilities and spawn new techniques and genres. The most striking developments in recent times have been the rise of the prose form to a position of predominance -- a position earlier held by poetry -- and the prodigious growth in dramatic literature. More recently Bandaya (Rebellion) and Dalit literature, which in some ways are a throwback to the Pragatishila days have become conspicuous. Mahadeva's Marikondavaru ("Those who sold themselves") and Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi ("Murder in the Eastern Region") form notable examples of this trend.

All through, Kannada literature continues to grow and retain its vitality - testified amply by a record seven Jnanpith awards, fifty Sahitya Akademi awards and numerous other national and international awards that have been bestowed on its writers in modern times.

References

• Bhat, Thirumaleshwara (1993) [1993]. Govinda Pai. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8172015402.
• Das, Sisir Kumar (1995) [1995]. A History Of Indian Literature 1911-1956. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8172017987.
• Iyer, Panchapakesa A.S. (2006) [2006]. Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra. Chennai: Zion Printers.
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. OCLC 7796041. LCCN 80-9 – 0.
• Karmarkar, A.P. (1947) [1947]. Cultural history of Karnataka : ancient and medieval. Dharwad: Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha. OCLC 8221605.
• Moorthy, Vijaya (2001) [2001]. Romance of the Raga. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170173825.
• Murthy, K. Narasimha (1992). "Modern Kannada Literature". In George K.M (ed.). Modern Indian Literature:An Anthology – Vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8172013248.
• Nagaraj, D.R. (2003) [2003]. "Tensions In Kannada Literary Culture". In Sheldon I. Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. University of California Press. ISBN 0520228219.
• Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988]. History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN ISBN 81-206-0303-6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) [2003]. Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638-1947 A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm.
• Prasad, K.B. Prabhu (1987) [1987]. Sarvajna. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 817201404X.
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• Rice, E.P. (1982) [1921]. Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600630.
• Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
• Sharma, B.N.K (1981, 2000) [1961]. History of Dvaita school of Vedanta and its Literature. Bombay: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1575-0. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
• Shiva Prakash, H.S. (1997). "Kannada". In Ayyappapanicker (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126003650.
• Various (1987) [1987]. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature – vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126018038.
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External links

• "History of Kannada Literature-I". History of Kannada Literature. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
• ""History of Kannada Literature" Book by Rice E. P". History of Kannada Literature. Retrieved 2008-03-08. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)