ʿUbūdīya

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The Ubudiah Mosque in Kuala Kangsar in Malaysia , which is named after the principle of ʿUbūdīya.

ʿUbūdīya ( Arabic عبودية 'Servitude, bondage, subservience') is an Islamic ideal of piety that affects the relationship of believers to God. The concept, which is linked to various Quranic verses and hadiths in which Mohammed and the people are described as "servants of God" (ʿibād Allaah) , was first discussed in the field of Sufik . Similar to the concept of humility , ʿUbūdīya denotes an attitude of willingness to serve God. Several scholars, including Ibn Taimīya and ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʿrānī , wrote independent treatises on ʿUbūdīya. Through the mediation of Ibn Taimīya, the concept also found its way into Islamist thought in the 20th century . It played a central role in the book “Signs on the Way” (Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq) by the Islamist theorist Sayyid Qutb . For him, the "ʿUbūdīya vis-à-vis God alone" was the most important feature to distinguish Muslim society from Jāhilitic society.

Linguistically, the term ʿUbūdīya is derived from the Arabic word root ʿabada , which means “serve, worship”. The associated noun ʿabd means "slave, servant, servant". The term ʿIbāda , which generally designates the worship practice in Islam, is formed from the same root . In addition to its terminological meaning as a designation for a religious conviction, ʿUbūdīya is also used in modern Arabic as a general term for slavery. Several mosques are named after the ʿUbūdīya principle, such as the Ubudiah Mosque in Kuala Kangsar in Malaysia .

Sufi definitions of ʿUbūdīya

While ʿIbāda generally refers to the practice of worship, ʿUbūdīya is used by most Sufis as a term for a religious attitude that goes beyond that. For example, Abū l-Qāsim an-Nasrābādī (d. 977/78) said that ʿUbūdīya occurs when a person no longer sees his own worship (taʿabbud) of God, but is completely absorbed in contemplation of what is revered. Most Sufis were also of the opinion that the ʿUbūdīya was on a higher level than ʿIbāda. For example, Abū ʿAlī ad-Daqqāq (d. 1015) taught that ʿIbāda belongs to all believers, while ʿUbūdīya is reserved for the religious elite. Alluding to the Koran verse Sura 15 : 99: “And serve your Lord until the certainty (al-yaqīn) comes to you!" He said that the ʿIbāda belongs to those who have the “knowledge of certainty” (ʿilm al-yaqīn ) , while the ʿUbūdīya only belong to those who have the “essence of certainty” (ʿain al-yaqīn) .

In particular, however, ʿUbūdīya includes the recognition of God's all-embracing rule. The Egyptian mystic Dhū n-Nūn al-Misrī (d. 859) taught: “The ʿUbūdīya consists in the fact that you are (= God's) servant in every situation, just as he is your master in every situation.” Another Definition was that the ʿUbūdīya is the “looking” or “self-awareness” (šuhūd) of God's sovereignty (rubūbīya) . Just as sovereignty (rubūbīya) is a quality of God that never ceases to exist, ʿUbūdīya should also be a quality of man that does not leave him as long as he lives. The orientalist Richard Hartmann said that this idea of ​​ʿUbūdīya embodies in an ideal-typical way what Friedrich Schleiermacher called in his speeches “ Speeches on Religion ” the feeling of “absolute dependence” on God and described it as the basis of every religion.

Al-Qushairī , who has devoted a separate chapter to the ʿUbūdīya in his manual on Sufik, gives numerous other definitions for this concept. In several of them the recognition of divine predestination ( Qadar ) plays an important role. One definition was that ʿUbūdīya was the rejection of choosing with regard to the divine determinations (tark al-iḫtiyār fīmā yabdū min al-aqdār) . The Egyptian scholar Mustafā al-ʿArūsī (d. 1876), who wrote a gloss for the handbook of al-Qushairīs, stated there that the refusal to vote meant the escape “from the calamity of one's own choice to the beauty of God's choice”. According to another definition, ʿUbūdīya is “the performance of duties of obedience under the condition that they increase, that everything that comes from one's self is disregarded, and that the noble deeds that are done by oneself are recognized as coming from God's destiny.” It is also said that one of the hallmarks of yaUbūdīya is renouncing planning (tadbīr) and contemplating divine predestination (taqdīr) .

According to Sufi ideas, important aspects of derUbūdīya were the virtues of “humility” (riḍā) and “patience” (ṣabr) . The Sufi Abū ʿAlī al-Juzdschānī quotes al-Qushairī with the statement: "Humility is the house of the ʿUbūdīya, patience is their door and devotion (tafwīḍ) is their room." According to Ahmad ibn ʿAtā ', a Sufi who lived in 923 / 24, the ʿUbūdīya consists of four virtues: the faithful keeping of promises, the observance of the boundaries of religious law, the humility of what exists, and the patient renunciation of what is lacking. This definition of ʿUbūdīya was later adopted by ʿAlī ibn Muhammad al-Jurdschānī in his "Book of Definitions" (Kitāb at-Taʿrīfāt) .

The Egyptian Sufi ʿAbd al-Wahhāb asch-Scharānī wrote his own treatise in which he described the rules of the ʿUbūdīya (ādāb al-ʿubūdīya) . There he said: “There is nothing on the way to God that leads closer to him than the gate of the ʿUbūdīya, because it is pure humility (ḏull) and submission (ḫuḍūʿ) and the recognition of one's own inadequacy (ruʾyat at-taqṣīr) . If, on the other hand, pride and arrogance arise in someone and he lacks humility, then he behaves contrary to the rules and the name of ʿUbūdīya is withdrawn from him. "

The ʿUbūdīya as the “highest rank” of man

Although the term ʿUbūdīya actually suggests that it is associated with humiliation, it is generally emphasized that it represents a distinction of man. Al-Qushairī quotes his teacher Abū ʿAlī ad-Daqqāq as saying that “there is nothing more honorable for the believer than servitude ( ʿubūdīya ) and no more perfect designation for him than when he is named after servitude.” As proof of this ad-Daqqāq pointed out that Mohammed is mentioned in several particularly important passages in the Koran not as a prophet or messenger , but as a servant ( ʿabd ), for example in connection with his night journey in sura 17 : 1, where it says: "Praise be, who let his servant travel at night ”and in sura 53:10“ and he gave his servant that revelation ”.

Ibn Qaiyim al-Jschauzīya (d. 1350) took a similar view. He declared in his treatise “Keys to the House of Happiness” ( Miftāḥ dār as-saʿāda ): “When God created his creation in various ways and states and in his Judging predestined to favor Adam and his descendants over many of his creatures, he made his bondage ( ʿubūdīya ) the highest of their ranks. I mean the voluntary servitude ( al-ʿubūdīya al-iḫtiyārīya ), which they perform out of a sense of obedience ( ṭauʿan ) and of their own free will ( iḫtiyāran ), not out of coercion and need. ”He cites a hadith according to which God gives the prophet Mohammed sent an angel, who introduced him to choose whether he an angel-prophet ( malak Nabī ) or servant prophet ( Abd Nabī wanted to be). Since he couldn't make up his mind, he looked to Gabriel for advice. This advised him with signs to be humble. Then he said: "I would rather be a servant-prophet."

As proof that the ʿUbūdīya is the "most exalted of his ranks" ( ašraf maqāmāti-hī ), Ibn Qaiyim al-Jschauzīya refers, similar to ad-Daqqāq, to ​​the fact that Mohammed mentions Muhammad as a servant ( ʿabd ) in several particularly important places in the Koran becomes. Ibn Qaiyim al-Jschauzīya regards these Quranic verses and a hadith in which Muhammad is referred to by Jesus as servant as evidence that “he achieved that highest degree through the perfection of his servitude ( ʿubūdīya ) to God and the perfection of God's forgiveness for Ibn Qaiyim al-Jschauzīya explains that since ʿUbūdīya has such a high status with God, he let Adam and his descendants dwell in a place where they through the perfection of their obedience to God, through approach to him and the abandonment of their habits could reach that degree.

Ash-Shaʿrānī also speaks of the ʿUbūdīya as the “most exclusive rank of the prophets and arch-righteous” ( aḫaṣṣ marātib al-anbiyāʾ wa-ṣ-ṣiddīqīn ). As he explains at the beginning of his treatise, the meaning of ʿUbūdīya only became clear to him during a revelatory religious experience. He dates this to the 17th Radschab 931h (= 10 May 1525). As he describes, he was very dissatisfied that day and saddened that he had not yet reached the rank of friend of God . As he went for a walk in al-Fustat across from the Nile island of Roda, he heard an invisible caller ( hātif ) there, who informed him that even if God would endow him with all knowledge of the cosmos and give him miracles, he would not have obtained anything from the ʿUbūdīya. After understanding the meaning of the ʿUbūdīya through this experience, he decided to write a treatise on it.

Ibn Taimīya's ʿUbūdīya treatise

The idea of ​​ʿUbūdīya as the highest rank of man was so widespread in the Middle East that Ibn Taimīya was asked to comment on it. As he says at the beginning of his ʿUbūdīya writing, he was asked whether the ihmUbūdīya was "the highest rank in this world and the hereafter" (aʿlā l-maqāmāt fī dunyā wa-l-āḫira) or whether it was a higher rank give. Ibn Taimīya confirmed the high rank of the RangUbūdīya in his treatise by referring to various verses of the Koran in which Mohammed (so sura 2:23, 17: 1, 53:10, 72:19), Abraham , Isaac and Joseph ( sura 38 : 45) and especially chosen people are characterized as God's servants (e.g. Sura 76 : 6).

However, Ibn Taimīya makes it clear that in his view there are very different degrees (daraǧāt mutafāwifat) of ʿUbūdīya . The general ʿUbūdīya, which concerns the sovereignty (rubūbīya) of God, already occurs when a person realizes that God is his Lord and Creator and that he is in need of him. With this ʿUbūdīya, however, it could be that the person nevertheless acts contrary to God's command and adores Satan and idols next to him . Such a ʿubūdīya exists both with the believers who go to paradise and with the unbelievers who are condemned to hell.

However, it is the task of man to perfect his ʿUbūdīya: “The more a person realizes his ʿUbūdīya, the more perfect he becomes and the more he ascends.” For this he must first understand that the ʿUbūdīya “slavery of the heart” (riqq al -qalb) is. As long as his greed is directed towards created things, his ʿUbūdīya applies to these things, whereby his heart is distracted from the ʿUbūdīya, which is centered on God. Everyone who attaches his heart to people, hoping from them victory, livelihood or guidance, submit his heart to them so that his ʿUbūdīya may apply to them. In this case, a “contemptible bondage” (ʿubūdīya ḏalīla) occurs to the object that has made the heart a slave. The more there is room in the heart for a love for something other than God, the more the ʿUbūdīya of something other than God also applies.

Ibn Taimīya explains that the ʿubūdīya towards God only increases when the love of the heart for him increases, because the concept of Begriffubūdīya is not only perfect humility (kamāl aḏ-ḏull) , but also perfect Love (kamāl al-ḥubb) means. Many people have failed to believe that the ʿubūdīya only includes humility and submission. It is correct, however, that friendship (ḫulla) and love (maḥabba) for God are necessary for the realization of ʿUbūdīya . If a person increases his ʿUbūdīya towards God through love, he can expect a very great reward, because “the most perfect, best, most superior, closest to God, strongest and most properly guided of all creatures is the one who has brought his ʿUbudīya furthest along this path . ”This is the truth of the religion of Islam (ḥaqīqat dīn al-islām) with which God sent the prophets to the people.

However, Ibn Taimīya further explains, one should not carelessly claim to have love for God because this is in contradiction to ʿUbūdīya. According to Ibn Taimīya, the removal of all pride (kibr) and the strengthening of loyalty (iḫlāṣ) to one's religion are necessary for the perfection of the ʿUbūdīya .

Sayyid Qutb: Islam as liberation from the ʿUbūdīya towards people

Ibn Taimīya's ʿUbūdīya treatise was among the most important reading material for the Muslim Brotherhood imprisoned in Egypt in the 1960s . Sayyid Qutb , who belonged to this group of people and was imprisoned as the most important ideologue of the Muslim Brotherhood at the time, attacked both in his Koran commentary “ In the protection of the Koran ” (Fī ẓilāl al-Qurʾān) and in his work “ Signs on the Way ” ( Maʿālim fī ṭarīq) very often refers back to this concept.

In “Signs on the Way”, he describes Islam as a universal declaration of the liberation of people from ʿUbūdīya towards other people and from ʿUbūdīya towards one's own desires, which also represents a form of bondage towards people. This is done through the proclamation of the sole divinity of Allah and his dominion (rubūbīya) over the worlds. Islam wants to lead people back to their Lord and wrest them from the ʿUbūdīya against other people, which consists in the observance of commandments that other people impose on them (aḥkām yašraʿuhā nās min al-bašar) . Islam is not only faith (ʿaqīda) , but also a declaration of the liberation of man from bondage to other servants. Therefore, from the outset, he strives to do away with systems and governments based on the principle of bondage of one to another. The term jihad must also be understood in this sense .

Sayyid Qutb repeats several times in his writing that the first pillar of Islam, the Shahāda , consists of two parts, the “perfect ʿubūdīya towards God alone” (al-ʿubūdīya al-kāmila li-Llāh waḥdahū) , and the reception of this ʿubūdīya from Messenger of God. Without following these two principles, Islam would have no existence in the life of the individual and the community. Also, man can only fulfill “God's representative on earth” (al-ḫilāfa Allan Allāh fī arḍi-hī) if he is faithful to God in his ʿUbūdīya and free himself from ʿUbūdīya towards other things.

A complete and real liberation from the ʿUbūdīya towards people can only be achieved if the highest rule (al-ḥākimīya al-ʿulyā) in society applies only to God, which is reflected in the "validity of the divine Sharia " (siyādat aš- šarīʿa al-ilāhīya) had to put down. With the observance of the Sharia of God (al-iltizām bi-šarīʿat Allāh) the bondage of men to God is realized, just as the bondage of the universe is realized in the general law of nature (an-nāmūs al-mmāmm) . Compliance with the Sharia must then also manifest itself in the political, social and economic conditions (aḥwāl siyāsīya wa-iǧtimāʿīya wa-iqtiṣādīya) .

For Sayyid Qutb, the “ʿUbūdīya towards God alone” is also the most important characteristic of “Muslim society” (al-muǧtamaʿ al-muslim) . It must be based on this principle in all its affairs, including in its community system (an-niẓām al-ǧamāʿī) . Societies in which this principle does not apply are in truth Jāhilīya societies, because while Islam is the bondage of people to God alone, Jāhilīya is the bondage (ʿubūdīya) of people to people. This is the case, for example, with the communists, for whom the ʿUbūdīya of the party applies. Since in contemporary societies in the field of ideological convictions, ritual acts and legal provisions the ʿUbūdīya are not oriented solely towards God, according to Sayyid Qutb they all correspond to the type of the “Jāhilitic society” (al-muǧtamaʿ al-ǧāhilī) . This also applies to societies that are based on secularism (ʿilmānīya) or that proclaim that they respect religion because life in them is not based entirely on ʿUbūdīya towards God. A truly Muslim society only emerges when a group of people who are committed to the principle of ʿUbūdīya to God alone stand up and organize their lives entirely on the basis of this principle.

Criticism of the concept

A critical examination of the concept of ʿUbūdīya can be found with the Lebanese diplomat Hasan Saʿb. In 1974 he published a book entitled "The Islam of Freedom, Not the Islam of Servitude" ( Islām al-ḥurrīya lā Islām al-ʿubūdīya ). In it he points out that according to the Qur'an, God appointed man as his representative ( ḫalīfa ) on earth against the will of the angels (Sura 2:30) and taught him all names to the exclusion of angels ( Sura 2 : 31). He further emphasizes that according to the Koran man is the only being who has voluntarily accepted the "entrusted good" ( amāna ) from God ( sura 33 : 72) and rivals God in creation, even if God is the "best Creator "( aḥsan al-ḫāliqīn ) is, as it says in sura 37 : 125. From this he concludes that according to the divine and prophetic judgment man is "a child of his own freedom and power, not a child of his bondage and impotence" ( walīd ḥurrīyat al-insān wa-qudrati-hī lā walīd ʿubūdīyati-hī wa-ʿaǧzi -hī ).

literature

Arabic sources

  • Ibn Taimīya : Al-ʿUbūdīya. Together with commentary by ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbdallāh ar-Rāǧiḥī. Dār al-Faḍīla, Riyad, 1998. Digitized - Engl. Transl. By Nasiruddin al-Khatab under the title Al-ʿUbudiyyah: being a true slave of Allah. Ta-Ha Publ., London, 1999.
  • Ibn Qaiyim al- Jschauzīya : Miftāḥ dār as-saʿāda wa-manšūr wilāyat ahl al-ʿilm wa-l-irāda. 2 vol. Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīya, Beirut, 1980. Vol. I, p. 6f. Digitized
  • ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Qušairī : ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . Dār Ǧawāmiʿ al-kalim, Cairo 2007. pp. 228–231. Digitized - Ger. Translated by Richard Gramlich under the title Al-Qušayrī's letter on Sufism. Franz Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1989. pp. 281-285.
  • Sayyid Qutb : Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. Dār aš-Šurūq, Beirut-Cairo, 1979. Digitized - German transl. To the English. Translated under the title Signs on the way. Al-Azr, Kuwait 1989. Digitized
  • Ḥasan Ṣaʿb: Islām al-ḥurrīya lā Islām al-ʿubūdīya . Dār al-ʿilm li-l-malāyīn, Beirut, 1974.
  • ʿAbd al-Wahhāb aš-Šaʿrānī : Al-Anwār al-Qudsīya fī Bayān ādāb al-ʿubūdīya. Al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿāmira aš-šarafīya, Cairo, 1317h (= 1899/1900 AD). Digitized

Secondary literature

  • Richard Hartmann : Al-Ḳuschairîs representation of Ṣûfîtum. With translation supplement and indices . Mayer & Müller, Berlin, 1914. pp. 5-8. Digitized
  • Sayed Khatab: The power of sovereignty: the political and ideological philosophy of Sayyid Qutb. Routledge, London, 2006. pp. 47-56.
  • James David Pavlin: The concept of ʿUbūdiyyah in the theology of Ibn Taymiyyah: the relationship between faith, love and actions in the perfection of worship. New York, Univ., Diss.UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, 1998.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ See Hartmann: Al-Ḳuschairîs representation of Ṣûfîtums. 1914, p. 5.
  2. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. p. 282.
  3. ↑ Quoted from al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. p. 282.
  4. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. S. 283 and Hartmann: Al-Ḳuschairîs representation of Ṣûfîtums. 1914, p. 6.
  5. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. p. 286.
  6. ↑ See Hartmann: Al-Ḳuschairîs representation of Ṣûfîtums. 1914, p. 5.
  7. ↑ See Gramlich's remarks in his translation of al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . 1989. p. 282.
  8. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. S. 282 and Hartmann: Al- Ḳuschairîs representation des Ṣûfîtums. 1914, p. 6.
  9. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. p. 282.
  10. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. S. 284 and Hartmann: Al- Ḳuschairîs representation des Ṣûfîtums. 1914, p. 5.
  11. ↑ Cf. al-Ǧurǧānī: Kitāb at-Taʿrīfāt . Ed. Gustav wing . Leipzig 1845. p. 151. Digitized
  12. ↑ Cf. Aš-Šaʿrānī: Al-Anwār al-Qudsīya fī Bayān ādāb al-ʿubūdīya. 1900, pp. 45f.
  13. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. p. 284.
  14. ↑ Cf. al-Qušairī: ar-Risāla fī t-taṣauwuf . German Übers. Gramlich 1989. p. 284.
  15. ↑ Cf. Ibn Qaiyim al-Ǧauzīya: Miftāḥ dār as-saʿāda. 1980, p. 6.
  16. ↑ Cf. Ibn Qaiyim al-Ǧauzīya: Miftāḥ dār as-saʿāda. 1980, p. 6.
  17. ↑ Cf. Ibn Qaiyim al-Ǧauzīya: Miftāḥ dār as-saʿāda. 1980, p. 6.
  18. ↑ Cf. Aš-Šaʿrānī: Al-Anwār al-Qudsīya fī Bayān ādāb al-ʿubūdīya. 1900, p. 3.
  19. ↑ Cf. Aš-Šaʿrānī: Al-Anwār al-Qudsīya fī Bayān ādāb al-ʿubūdīya. 1900, p. 2f.
  20. ↑ Cf. Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 5.
  21. ↑ Cf. Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 5.
  22. ↑ Cf. Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya . 1998, p. 97.
  23. ↑ Cf. Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 25.
  24. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 63.
  25. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 72.
  26. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 80f.
  27. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 82.
  28. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 135.
  29. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 82.
  30. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 116.
  31. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 120.
  32. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 97.
  33. ↑ Cf. Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 97.
  34. ↑ Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 122.
  35. ↑ Cf. Ibn Taimīya: Al-ʿUbūdīya. 1998, p. 105.
  36. ↑ Cf. Barbara Zollner: The Muslim Brotherhood: Hasan Al-Hudaybi and Ideology. Routledge, Abingdon, 2009. pp. 42f.
  37. ↑ See Khatab: The power of sovereignty. 2006, pp. 47-56.
  38. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 59 and German translation p. 71.
  39. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 62 and German translation p. 71.
  40. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 63 and German translation p. 76.
  41. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 65 and German translation p. 77.
  42. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, pp. 83, 97 and 123 and German translations pp. 98, 113.
  43. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 100.
  44. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 114.
  45. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 107f. and German translation p. 171.
  46. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 103 and German translations p. 120.
  47. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 124.
  48. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 84f and German translations p. 99, 101.
  49. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 149 and German translation p. 171. The term ʿUbūdīya is translated here as “worship”.
  50. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 88f and German translations p. 103.
  51. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 93 and German translations p. 103.
  52. ↑ Cf. Sayyid Qutb: Maʿālim fī ṭ-ṭarīq. 1979, p. 86 and German translations p. 107f.
  53. ↑ Cf. Ṣaʿb: Islām al-ḥurrīya lā Islām al-ʿubūdīya . 1974, p. 27f.