Cloisonne

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Gothic eagle fibula, 6th century, Iberian Peninsula
Cloisonné vase, China, 17th century

Cloisonné (short form from French émail cloisonné ; to cloison “partition”), also called cell enamel or cell enamel , is an artisanal technique for enamel work . For production, thin wires or metal strips are soldered onto a carrier plate (a piece of jewelry or a small piece of plastic ), usually made of copper , and different colored glass flows are inserted between them . The metal bars separate the individual color fields and prevent the colors from running into one another. The blank is then fired at approx. 750-800 ° C, so that a pattern of colored glass is created on the carrier plate. Transparent glass flow is called translucent, while more opaque glass is called opaque.

history

Tomb slab of Guy de Mejos, Limoges, 1307, Louvre

Emergence

The history of the discovery and early use of email is unclear, but the technique appears to have been used independently in different locations. Every craftsman who had the skill to work with glass and metal has probably recognized the decorative potential of using the two materials in combination, i.e. coloring metal surfaces so that they give the impression of a valuable stone. Preparatory work on the later enamel technique was probably carried out in Egypt, where the art of laying in cells was very pronounced. Since the technology of the cell insert to melt the early Egyptian glass would have required a very high melting temperature, it was not suitable for use with metal. Two pendants that were found near Enkomi in Cyprus are probably of Egyptian origin, but do not completely fill the cells and are therefore referred to as wire enamel. Other sites of enamel have been found in the Crimea and Etruria . No melting process has been handed down from ancient Greek art, so the Etruscans are more likely to have adopted the technique from Asia Minor .

The oldest known enamel comes from a Mycenaean piece of jewelry around 1450 BC. The first known complete cloisonné, a gold scepter, probably dates from the 11th century BC. And was discovered during excavations in a royal tomb in Kourion , Cyprus .

Byzantine and European Middle Ages

Byzantine enamels are believed to come from ancestors of the ancient Greeks. The objects, mostly made of cloisonné enamel and made of precious metal, mostly gold, were mostly used for objects with liturgical or ceremonial meaning or for jewelry. Emails from the time before iconoclasm (726–842) are very rare, as many religious works of art were destroyed during this time. The oldest surviving piece dates from around the fifth or sixth century.

Pair of vases in the "open" cloisonné technique, China, approx. 1770–1820

Karl Woermann mentions this art technique in his History of Art (1905):
A considerable number of such works of art have been preserved in cathedral treasures and collections of the West. The golden front wall (Pala d'oro) of the high altar of St. Mark's Church in Venice is famous. The Doge Pietro Orseolo I used enamels from Constantinople. But only the enamel pictures in their upper row, for example the medallion picture of the Archangel Michael and the six pictures from the Passion and Acts of the Apostles, belong to this golden age of Byzantine art; the rest are added later. Also famous is the golden Kreuzlade (Staurothek) in Limburg Cathedral on the Lahn.

East Asian art

The cloisonné technique has also been used in Chinese art . Isolated finds of bronzes with glass river inclusions from the Shang period prove an early use of this technique in China. However, these works were exceptional and differed fundamentally from the cloisonné works of the later period. Mediated through the Islamic countries, European cloisonné art did not reach the “Middle Kingdom” until the early Ming period (1368–1644) and was referred to as guǐguóyáo ( 鬼 國 窰 , literally “goods from the devil's land ”). Cloisonné experienced its first heyday during the Xuande period (1425–1435). The term used today for cloisonné in China is jǐngtàilán ( 景泰藍 ; literally “blue of the Jingtai [era]”) (1450–1457) and can be traced back to the deep blue cast glass that was developed during this period and is still in use today. The brief reign of Emperor Jingtai is considered to be the pinnacle of cloisonné art in China.

Bowls, vases, candlesticks and incense burners were made using the cloisonné technique, and from the second half of the 18th century onwards, other everyday items such as B. Snuff Vials . Since the Xuande period, imperial cloisonné objects often have period marks in regular script , and since the Qianlong period sometimes also in seal script .

Unlike z. B. Cloisonné, Japanese shippō-yaki ( 七宝 焼 (き) , literally “seven treasure goods”) had ceramics , in Japanese arts and crafts until the second half of the 19th century only a subordinate role. From the Muromachi and Edo periods , only a few small-scale works made in Japan using this technique, such as handles for sliding doors, water drops for the production of Indian ink , tsuba and other sword jewelry, are known. The art of cloisonné was only practiced on a larger scale towards the end of the Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji period (1868–1912). The early Japanese cloisonné works of the 1830s and some up to the beginning of the 1870s still refer strongly to Chinese models and are also known as doro shippō (( 七宝 , dt. "Mud cloisonné") because of their relatively wide webs and dull colors designated. Within a few decades, however, the Japanese cloisonné developed into a form of handicraft of the highest technical and artistic perfection.

The flourishing of this special craftsmanship in Japan is due to the forced opening of the country , the emergence of Japonism in Europe and the USA, and the costs of modernization and industrialization for Japan. Under the Meiji government , there was a systematic search for outstanding and profitable products, with the sale of which the Japanese government could secure the financing of the country's renovations. The German chemist Gottfried Wagener , who was both a pioneer in the development of a Japanese engineering degree and who provided important impulses for the further development of cloisonné techniques in Japan, was involved in this selection . In addition to porcelain, bronze and silver work as well as traditional textile production, the production of cloisonné work in the Meiji period became an economic factor in Japan and, especially as an export product, significant income could be achieved through it.

Trained metalworkers, who could no longer make the equipment for the samurai that had become superfluous and whose survival was endangered by the rapidly growing industrial production, found a new field of activity. In order to be successful on the export market, the Japanese artisans orientate themselves in the design of the work to traditional Japanese / Chinese shapes and decors as well as to European taste.

Individual pieces of contemporary cloisonné production were already successfully presented at the Paris World Exhibition in 1867. For example, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London acquired a cloisonné-made confectionery box from Nagoya for 50 British pounds (according to today's value approx. 57,000 euros; as of 2019) and the first prize at the Vienna World Exhibition in 1873 to the "Nagoya Cloisonné Company", which was only founded in 1871. Further prizes, especially for works by the artist Namikawa Yasuyuki (1845–1927), followed at the exhibitions in 1876, 1878, 1900 and 1904.

An impoverished samurai by the name of Kaji Tsunekichi (1803-1883) from Nagoya, who acquired a Chinese cloisonné work in 1838 and, after studying it, mostly made small-scale works using this technique, is considered to be the pioneer of modern Japanese cloisonné . In the years that followed Tsunekichi, the most important of the three centers of Japanese cloisonné production was built around Nagoya, along with Kyōto and Tokyō, and to the northwest of Nagoya, Shippo-chō , the "cloisonné city", was built in Toshima , in which at times up to 70% of Japanese cloisonné was made.

One of Tsunekichi's pupils, Tsukamoto Kaisuke (1828-1887), went to Tokyō in 1875 to work in his own workshop for the German trading company H. Ahrens & Co. There he met Gottfried Wagener, who became his business partner. Wagener was responsible for the technical management of the company. Together they managed to increase the color intensity and shine of the enamel used and, thanks to Wagener's developments, to achieve large-scale painterly effects without using visible metal bars. It is believed that Kaisuke developed the technique of applying cloisonne to porcelain . However, this was a relatively short-lived innovation and never became very popular, probably because objects made in this technique tended to look dull and cracked. In 1878 he returned to the Nagoya Cloisonné Company and Wagener went to Nagoya, where he met Namikawa Yasuyuki. Namikawa was also a penniless samurai who had worked for the Nagoya Cloisonné Company from 1871 to 1874 before opening his own workshop. With the help of Wagener, a semi-transparent black enamel was produced, which, in addition to the exceptionally fine lines and the silvering or gilding over the copper bars, became the trademark of his art.

The Andō family founded a cloisonné workshop in Nagoya in 1880, which is believed to have played a major role in the development of the plique-à-jour technique at the beginning of the 20th century. With this technique, bars and colored enamel are applied to a thin metal base and this is then removed again by etching. The development of the partial plique-à-jour, in which the metal base is only partially removed, was also significantly influenced by the Andō workshop.

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the increasingly cheap and levelless mass production of cloisonné goods, with which the western markets were flooded. Saturation of the market and the end of enthusiasm for Japan in Europe and the USA led to the decline of most of Japanese cloisonné production. In addition, however, a cloisonnè market held its own up to the present day , supported by the patronage of the Japanese imperial family . Andō's sales rooms have been in operation in Tokyo's Ginza since 1907 until today. The period from approx. 1880 to 1920 is rightly called the "golden age" of Japanese cloisonné art, and remains unsurpassed technically and artistically to this day.

Other important Japanese cloisonné artists included:

  • Andō Jūbei (1876–1953)
  • Gonda Hirosuke I (1865-1937)
  • Gonda Hirosuke II (1893-1939)
  • Hayashi Kodenji I. (1831-1915)
  • Hayashi Suguemon, Kodenji II. (1859-1922)
  • Hayashi Tomijiroō, Kodenji III. (1879–1944)
  • Hayashi Kurakichi, Kodenji IV. (1903-1982)
  • Kawade Shibatarō (1856-1921)
  • Namikawa Sōsuke (1847-1910)
  • Ōta Kichisaburō (active approx. 1860–1910)
  • Hattori Tadasaburō (? –1939)

Examples of contemporary use

Even nowadays, various jewelry objects are made using cell melting technology. Some selected examples are listed here; it is not a complete list.

An example of contemporary technology is the dial of the “The Dragon” watch from the “Cloisonné” series by Vulcain (Le Locle, Switzerland). The blog “Uhrsachen” writes: “The sometimes arbitrary nature of the process means that every time a piece is created that is unique in terms of the reflections and the play of colors.”

The company Donzé Cadrans SA (Le Locle, Switzerland) specializes in the craftsmanship of enamel for dials. You work with enamel in various techniques, including the cell melting process (cloisonné).

Another application of the cell melting technology can be found at the American motorcycle manufacturer Harley-Davidson. In 1998, on the occasion of its 95th anniversary, the company launched a motorcycle series with a cloisonné enamel emblem. A tank cap, which was produced for the Dyna Low Rider model in 2003, was also produced using this technology.

There are also various examples of the contemporary application of the enamel cloisonée in the field of art. The artist Kai Hackemann, who lives in Germany, shows works using this technique from 2013 on his website.

Jewelry design and pearls

Many offers for objects in the technique of the email cloisonné can be found on various online sales platforms. The aesthetics of the enamel cloisonné, characterized by the metal bars, is also imitated as a design in inexpensive jewelry production. So you can find countless small pearls, jewelry boxes and objects that have a certain resemblance to the technique of enamel cloisonné, but are not comparable in terms of design and attention to detail.

Vases

With the help of the old technique of enamel cloisonné, new works have been produced over and over again in recent decades, which can be compared technically and visually with the old technique. However, this example from Beijing was not reinterpreted. The vase was made in Bejing Shi in 1984 and provided with floral patterns that stretch across the entire indigo blue vase like a network of flower heads.

Manufacturing process today

There are three different styles of production:

  • With the concave manufacturing method, the cells are not completely filled
  • The convex manufacturing method overfills the cells.
  • In the flat manufacturing method, the cells are filled exactly to the edge of the cell.

The manufacturing process of cloisonné can be divided into four work steps: First, precious metal is bent into shape in the form of flat rolled copper wires, placed on edge and soldered. A previously drawn decorative pattern is recreated. This step can be compared to sketching while painting. The copper disks are two to three millimeters wide and are bent into various shapes with tweezers and small nippers. Then these copper particles are attached to the blank. In the second step, the colors are applied to the previously manufactured base body using a tube. The different shades of blue are made from natural ore powder that is mixed with water. The copper frame, which has now been enriched with color, is then heated to 800 ° C in a kiln. The ore powder melts and becomes hard after the firing process, producing bright colors. Finally, in the fourth step, the hardened enamel is carefully sanded and polished. In order to avoid oxidation of the finished product, it must also be gold-plated.

To this day, cloisonné products can only be made by hand. Machine production has not yet been possible because the manufacturing process is too filigree.

The art of cloisonné enamel is hardly practiced today. In China, art (Jingtailan) was therefore declared a national intangible cultural heritage by the government in 2006.

See also

literature

  • Willy Burger: Western melting work . Richard Carl Schmidt & Co., Berlin 1930.
  • Marian Campbell: An introduction to medieval enamels . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1983.
  • Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 .

Web links

Commons : Cloisonné  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hans Schlagintweit, Helene K. Forstner: Art history: recognizing styles - from antiquity to modernity. Basel 1991, p. 66.
  2. ↑ Campbell, p. 8.
  3. ↑ Burger, pp. 5-6.
  4. ↑ Campbell, p. 8.
  5. ↑ Tait 2016. See the English entry on Enamelwork Hugh Tait, Encyclopedia Britannica 2016
  6. ↑ Campbell, p. 10. For an example, see Byzantine Cloisonné
  7. ^ Karl Woermann : History of art of all times and peoples. 6 volumes, Volume 2. Bibliographical Institute, Vienna / Leipzig 1905, p. 72.
  8. ↑ a b c d Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 24.
  9. ↑ Gunhild Avitabile: After thirty-eight years ... In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Sieben Schätze. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 18.
  10. ↑ a b c d e Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 26.
  11. ↑ a b c Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 25.
  12. ↑ a b Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 22.
  13. ↑ a b Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 23.
  14. ↑ a b c Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 29.
  15. ^ Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 21.
  16. ^ Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 27.
  17. ^ Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 26 f.
  18. ↑ a b Stephan von der Schulenburg: Japanese Cloisonné. In: Stephan von der Schulenburg, Mattias Wagner: Seven Treasures. A cabinet of curiosities of Japanese cloisonné. Wienand Verlag, Cologne 2019, ISBN 978-3-86832-516-4 , p. 28.
  19. ↑ Manufacture des montres Vulcain SA: Vulcain Cloisonne. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  20. ↑ A new masterpiece in email Cloisonné - Uhrsachen Bern. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  21. ^ Cloisonné - Donzé Cadrans. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  22. ^ Greg Field: Harley-Davidson Evolution Motorcycle: Heritage Springer . MBI Publishing Company, Osceola (USA) 2001, p. 83 .
  23. ↑ Fuel Cap Medallion - Cloisonne (99537-96). Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  24. ↑ Harley special models - model news . In: http://www.1000ps.at/ . ( 1000ps.ch [accessed October 24, 2018]).
  25. ↑ Grubenschmelz, Zellenschmelz, template technology - Kai Hackemann. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  26. ↑ Cloisonne vase and stand. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  27. ↑ Glenice Leslie Matthews: Enamels Enameling Enamelists . Chilton Book Company, 1984, pp. 146-147 .
  28. ↑ a b Jingtailan - traditional cloisonné "Made in China" - Radio China International. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .
  29. ↑ A new masterpiece in email Cloisonné - Uhrsachen Bern. Retrieved October 24, 2018 .