Chinese art

Landscape painting by Dǒng Qíchāng (1555–1636)

Pagoda of Fogong Temple , built in 1056

Chinese art is art that has its origins in ancient or modern China or is practiced by Chinese artists, and is therefore an expression of Chinese culture .

General

In contrast to the “ Occident ”, whose art history has repeatedly seen major cuts in the form of style changes, Chinese art has been shaped by an astonishing continuity over the centuries. In the Ming novella (14th to 17th centuries), its model from the Tang period (7th to 10th centuries) can still be recognized. Landscape paintings by a Qing painter (17th to 20th centuries) are basically structured in a similar way to those of the Song Dynasty (10th to 13th centuries). One reason for this is the “respect for tradition” that has always been widespread in China. The artists' primary goal was not to create something new, but rather to imitate the models of the ancients as faithfully as possible - which, by the way, is in no way perceived as plagiarism or in any other way as unfair. Ultimately, this view is based on the Confucian worldview, which u. a. orders the student to worship the master.

But the other religious and philosophical teachings spread in China also repeatedly gained considerable influence on artistic creation. Neither Chinese painting nor the poems of the Tang poets would be conceivable without Daoism . Even thematically, they often deal with the postulate of a life in harmony with nature. But the painting technique also reveals influences of the Daoist yin and yang doctrine , for example in the dialectical alternation between painted and empty surfaces, or in the contrast between “wet” and “dry” brushstrokes. In addition, figures from Daoist mythology also appear again and again in works of Chinese art. The influences of Buddhism , however, are less pronounced , especially since in the course of time it has already been partially sinised beyond recognition. From the 16th century onwards, western influences also appeared, particularly through the activities of European missionaries.

For financial reasons, Chinese art was for the most part carried out by the imperial court or the courtly and scholarly circles. In addition, there were also lonely artistic personalities, especially in literature and painting, who created their works far away from people in rural areas, in mountain valleys or the like. Most of the time, however, these are scholars or even former officials who had turned their backs out of frustration or indignation at the prevailing political conditions in the world. An increase in this movement was usually observed after a change of dynasty, particularly when the Manchu assumed power as the Qing dynasty in the mid-17th century .

The radiation effects of Chinese art can be observed in the entire East Asian region. They are naturally particularly pronounced in areas that were temporarily under Chinese rule, such as the "vassal states" Korea and Vietnam , or were settled by the Chinese (Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia). But Japanese art also owes a great deal to the Middle Kingdom in this respect. In some areas, the epigones even succeeded in surpassing their role model, such as in lacquer art, which was in its prime in Japan . From the 16th century, Chinese works of art - especially porcelain - were exported to Europe on a large scale, where they gained influence on Western art.

The art of Taiwan, as well as that of the Chinese emigrants, can be seen as part of the Chinese art in which it has its roots.

Historical development until 221 BC Chr.

See also : Xia Dynasty , Shang Dynasty, and Zhou Dynasty

Neolithic pottery art

Early forms of Chinese art were found in the Neolithic Yangshao culture (仰韶文化), which lasted until the 6th millennium BC. Goes back to BC. Archaeological finds like that of the Banpo settlement have shown that pottery was already practiced in the Yangshao period ; the early ceramic products were often unpainted and often had plastic cord structures. The earliest decorative elements included fish and human faces, but these ultimately developed into symmetrical - geometric abstract patterns, many of which were painted.

The most prominent feature of the Yangshao culture was the extensive use of painted pottery, particularly with human faces, depictions of animals and geometric designs. Unlike the later Longshan culture , the Yangshao culture did not yet know the potter's wheel . According to archaeologists, the Yangshao Society was based on matriarchally organized clans . Excavations have shown that children were buried in painted pottery vessels.

Jade culture

The Liangzhu Jade culture was the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangzi Delta and lasted about 1300 years. The art of jade of this time is characterized by finely crafted large ritual vessels such as cong tubes , bi disks , yue axes as well as pendants and amulets in the form of finely chiselled birds , turtles or fish . Liangzhu jade is characterized by its milky white color, which is due to its tremolitic origin.

• 

  Bi-Disc (Shang)

• 

  Bi disc (Zhou)

• 

  Double-headed Jade Dragon (Zhou)

• 

  Jade Dragon (Zhou)

Bronze art

The Bronze Age began in China with the Shang Dynasty , which is known for its detailed bronze art. The blacksmiths of the era usually worked in workshops outside the cities and made ritual vessels and carriage fittings there. The bronze vessels were used to hold various liquids that were used in religious ceremonies. The Ku and Jue vessels are pretty to look at, but the thing that appears most impressive is a tripod jug.

On vessels from the Shang period, the entire available surface was typically decorated, often with stylized forms of real and imaginary animals. The most common motif is the Taotie , a planar, symmetrically depicted mythical creature. According to one interpretation, it is supposed to be a lustful man who has been condemned as a punishment to defend one of the four corners of the sky against evil monsters. Another view is that Taotie is a monster that consists of only one head and therefore only harms itself in its attempts to devour people.

With the transition from the Shang to the Zhou dynasty , the form and function of the bronzes gradually changed. They were now serving more secular purposes. In the time of the Warring States, the bronze vessels even became an object of aesthetic enjoyment: banquet and hunting scenes now often appeared , while others had abstract designs with gold and silver inlays and precious gemstones . Also, more polished bronze mirrors were produced.

The bronzes of the Shang period were highly valued later in the Song Dynasty . It was not only based on their shape and design, but also on the green, blue and sometimes even reddish patina that they had acquired as a result of chemical processes while they were buried. The preoccupation with early Chinese bronze art is a specialty of art history .

• 

  Fangyi Vessel (Shang)

• 

  Ritual ax (shang)

• 

  Ding Vessel (Zhou)

• 

  Jug (zhou)

Early Chinese Music

→ Main article : Chinese music

Bronze bells, Zhou period

The origins of Chinese music and poetry can be found in the Book of Songs (詩經 Shījīng). That between 1000 and 600 BC The work written in BC contains folk tunes, religious consecration chants and national hymns, but also songs of love, war, fasting and lamentation of all kinds. The love songs in particular impress with the freshness and innocence of their language.

Early Chinese music was based primarily on percussion instruments such as the bronze bell , which was made to sound from the outside with a ram; often whole rows of bells were hung in wooden racks. Scratches and abrasion marks were found inside the bells, which can probably be traced back to the “tuning” of the bell. During the Warring States period , percussion instruments were gradually replaced by string and wind instruments (reed flutes).

Significantly, the second character of the word music (音乐; yīnyuè) is written just like joy (Freude; kuàilè). Confucius (孔子; Kǒng Zǐ; 551–479 BC) and his students accorded great importance to music because, in their opinion, it had the power to make people peaceful and balanced, but also, conversely, discouraged and contentious. After Xúnzǐ (荀子; 298–220 BC) music was just as important as the Lǐ (礼; "custom"), a central concept of Confucianism . Mòzǐ (墨子; end of the 5th century BC), an antagonist of Confucianism, viewed music as a purely aesthetic category and thus a useless waste of time.

Early poetry

The famous Book of Songs (詩經; Shījīng) was later joined by the collection of songs from Chu (楚辭; Chǔcí), which mainly comes from the semi-legendary Qū Yuán (屈原; 340–278 BC) and its successor Sòng Yù (宋玉; 4th century B.C.). The songs in this collection are held in a more lyrical and romantic tone and, compared to Shījīng, stand for a different tradition for a different tradition of classical Chinese poetry.

Chu and the culture of the south

A rich source of early Chinese art was the state of Chu , located in the Yangzi Valley . Excavations in Chu graves have brought to light painted wooden sculptures, jade disks, glass beads, musical instruments and a rich collection of lacquerware. Often the lacquer objects are finely painted, either red on black or vice versa. The oldest silk painting in the world was found in Changsha ( Hunan Province ); it shows a woman in the company of a phoenix and a dragon , two mythical creatures that are very common in Chinese art.

A selection of the Chu poetry has also survived in the form of the Chǔcí mentioned above . The texts are often associated with shamanism . The descriptions of fantastic landscapes are China's first natural poetry . The longest poem, “In the grip of worry” (Lisao), was probably written by the tragic figure of Qū Yuán as a political allegory .

Qin Dynasty (221 to 207 BC)

See also : Qin Dynasty

Despite its brevity, the Qin dynasty , which is largely identical to the reign of the first emperor Qin Shihuangdi, has a permanent place in Chinese art history. The reason for this is the widely famous terracotta army in the emperor's mausoleum near Xi'an, a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It consists of more than 7000 life-size warrior and horse figures made of terracotta that were buried together with the Shihuangdi. The original coloring of the painted figures was still visible when they were excavated, but has now faded due to the influence of the air, so that the figures now appear in pure terracotta tone. The figures were depicted in a variety of poses: standing infantrymen are represented as well as kneeling archers or charioteers, but generals are also present. The faces and hairstyles were designed individually. Since the excavation, broken figures have been put back together by hand, which takes a lot of time in view of the mass of broken pieces. In addition, hardly any soldiers are currently being dug up to prevent the loss of the coloring, as no adequate solution has yet been found. When it comes into contact with oxygen, the color, which has survived underground for several centuries, fades.

• 

  Four-horse carriage

• 

  Imperial touring car

• 

  The Terracotta Army

• 

  Officer's head

music

The Imperial Music Office was founded in the Qin period.

See also : Yuefu

Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD)

See also : Han Dynasty

Visual arts

Two nobles, painting on a grave brick

Silk banner of the dead of the Marquise of Dai

Most of the works of art from the Han period that are still preserved today were discovered in the graves uncovered in the course of the 20th century. Artifacts made of clay and ceramics were mainly found there as grave goods . The mostly multi-storey miniature houses with balconies and the ships and wagons made in a similar style are particularly famous. Sculptures, silk pictures, ornate bronze mirrors and incense burners were also found in the graves .

The wall coverings, which differ greatly depending on the geographic location of the grave, also attracted great interest. While in Manchuria , for example , people were content with masses of mud bricks, which were relatively cheap to produce, the stone reliefs of the merchants' graves in Shanxi had sophisticated ornamental and animal representations. But even they do not come close to the bricks discovered in 1947 in Sichuan with their detailed and artistically demanding landscape scenes.

literature

During the Han dynasty (206 BC to 220), the Chu lyric evolved into the Fu (賦), a poem that was often composed of dialogues and usually rhymed. From this, in turn, the Yuefu (乐府) emerged, a poem in the folk style . The term literally means "music office" - a reference to the fact that the writing and collecting of poetry was originally the task of state authorities. There is no uniform line length, but five characters per line are standard. Each poem follows one of the defined sound patterns that match the title. The term Yuefu not only covers original folk tunes, but also their imitations and versions of famous poets worked out at court.

The prose literature of the Han period deals primarily with practical topics. Political writings, entries to the throne and letters have survived. It is also worth mentioning the Shiji ( Auf Shĭ Jì "Notes of a Great Historian") of Sīmǎ Qiān (司馬遷; 145–90 BC), which is still valued today not only as a historical source, but also as an example of perfect style.

architecture

→ Main article : Chinese architecture

Miniature houses made of fired clay

Basic architectural principles in China go back to the early imperial era, especially the hall structures. With the unification of the empire, a pompous architecture asserted itself at the courtly level, whose claim should represent imperial size. This finds its origin in the numerous palace buildings of the First Emperor, whose legendary Epang Palace became a myth of imperial architecture. The Han emperors continued this principle and set new artistic standards with the Weiyang Palace.

In this early form, the imperial palace is still very undifferentiated, which means that no strict distinction is made between living areas, representative buildings, sacred architecture, administrative and farm buildings and warehouses. All of these areas merge into one another and form a relatively large palace complex. In the course of the dynastic succession, from this point on, a constant evolution of the palace architecture can be observed, as a result of which the aforementioned areas are separated more and more strictly. The palace architecture finds its climax in the Ming Age Forbidden City , with a consequent "nested together" of the areas of responsibility, with the private apartments of the emperor in the center of the capital Beijing .

Multi-storey tower-like houses can be found among the city dwellers of the Han period. A layering of storeys, the structure of which clearly corresponds to that of the hall buildings, whereby the individual floors are each emphasized by their own roofs. In this era, the roofs increasingly became an outstanding decorative element. Until the Song era, this trend (which can be observed in all building types) developed towards overloaded roof constructions, the four corners of which are directed upwards to optically compensate for the bulky architecture and thus simulate lightness.

music

→ Main article : Chinese music

Han Emperor Wudi expanded the Imperial Music Office , which was founded in the Qin period, and commissioned his officials to monitor court and military music as well as the official recognition of folk songs.

Others

The Han dynasty was also known for its funeral suits made from tiny pieces of jade . A famous example is in the Provincial Museum in Wuhan . The museum in Xuzhou owns two other excellent, fully preserved specimens .

Three Kingdoms Period and Jin Dynasty (from 220 to 581)

See also : Three Kingdoms Period , Jin Dynasty (265–420), and Southern and Northern Dynasties

Influence of Buddhism

→ Main article : Buddhist art - China

The Buddhism came to China in the 1st century, although according to tradition already in his lifetime King Ashoka's a monk, the Middle Kingdom is said to have visited. By the 8th century he had a considerable impact in the field of art, especially in the field of large religious sculptures. But Buddhist art soon took on autochthonous Chinese features. The Yungang Grottoes , the Mogao Grottoes and the Longmen Grottoes offer a rich testament to Buddhist art in China.

literature

Prince Cáo Cāo (曹操; 155–220) and his sons Cáo Pī (曹丕; 187–226) and Cáo Zhí (曹植; 192–232) are among the great poets of the era . Cáo Pī is known in particular as the author of the first classical Chinese poem with seven characters per line (七言 詩Qīyánshī ), the swallow song (燕 歌行Yàngēxíng ).

Cáo Zhí showed his genius at an early age and was long considered a promising candidate for the throne. In the end, however, encouraged by his father's high officials, he put his talent into the service of literature and poetry. Later he surrounded himself with poets and officials interested in literature, who of course often enough overshadowed Cáo Zhi and his family.

Táo Yuānmíngs (陶淵明; 372–427) work was to have a great influence on Chinese poetry . He often praised the joys of idyllic country life and wine in an idealizing way. 120 of his poems have survived.

calligraphy

Calligraphy by Wang Xizhi (4th century): Beginning of the famous poem about the orchid pavilion

In the court circles of ancient China, painting and calligraphy were considered the most highly valued arts. They were practiced mainly by amateurs, aristocrats and scholarly officials who alone had the leisure necessary to perfect their brush technique. Calligraphy was considered the purest and highest form of expression in painting. Paintings were originally made on silk with a brush made of animal hair and an ink made from soot and animal glue , after the invention of paper in the 1st century, on this new and cheaper material.

Original works by famous calligraphers have been valued in China at all times, drawn on rolls and sometimes hung on the wall in the manner of paintings.

Wáng Xīzhī (王羲之; 307–365), who lived in the 4th century and is best known for his work Orchid Pavilion (蘭亭 序; Lántíng Xù), is one of the most renowned representatives of art . This is the preface to a poem anthology by several poets who gather in Lan Ting near Shaoxing City ( Zhejiang Province ) and play a game called “qushui liushang”.

The calligrapher Wèi Shuò (卫 铄; 272–349) from the Eastern Jin Dynasty has made a name for herself on the one hand with a set of rules about the art she practices. Well-known own works are Inscription about a famous concubine (名 姬 帖Míng Jī Tiè ) and The Inscription of Wèishì Hénán (衛 氏 和南 帖Wèishì Hénán Tiè ).

painting

Three basic works on the theory of Chinese painting come from Gù Kǎizhī (顾 恺 之; 344–405) from Wuxi : On painting (画 论Huàlùn ), introduction to famous paintings from the Wei and Jin dynasties (魏晋胜 流 画 赞Wèijìnshèngliúhuàzàn ) and When painting the Yuntai mountain (画 云台山 记Huàyúntáishānjì ). In his view, when painting people, what matters less is clothing or overall appearance; rather, the careful representation of the eyes is decisive for the spirit of a picture.

Only three of Gus' paintings survive today: Admonitions to the lady-in-waiting , The Nymph of the Luo River (洛神赋Lùoshénfù ), and Wise Men and Women .

Sui and Tang dynasties (581-960)

See also : Sui Dynasty , Tang Dynasty, and Five Dynasties and Ten Empires

Large Buddhist sculpture

Buddha, Longmen Grottoes , 7th century

Following on from a tendency already initiated under the Sui dynasty , large Buddhist sculptures increasingly developed into a more realistic and lifelike expression under the Tang dynasty . As a result of the open-mindedness of the Tang Empire and, in particular, its cultural exchange with the Indian cultural area, the Buddhist sculptures of the Tang period assumed a more classical form, influenced by Indian Gupta art.

Buddhist art experienced a collapse towards the end of the Tang period, when Emperor Wuzong banned all foreign religions in 845 in order to restore autochthonous Daoism to its old position. He confiscated Buddhist property and forced the believers to go underground, whereupon art largely came to a standstill.

While most of the wooden sculptures of the Tang period did not survive the persecution, considerably more of the stone art has been preserved. The greatest sculptures are in Longmen , south of Luoyang ( Henan Province ).

Tang pottery

Above all, the art of the Tang period is associated with natural or colored glazed ceramic sculptures, which mostly depict horses, camels and angry demons ("Hellguards"), but also court ladies and musicians. The sometimes recognizable non-Chinese facial features of the depicted can be explained by the cultural influences from Western Asia and Europe, which were conveyed in particular through the brisk trade on the Silk Road .

The origins of porcelain , which was invented in China and refined more and more over the course of later dynasties and made from a paste made from kaolin and feldspar , also date back to the Tang period . Compared to conventional pottery, porcelain presents its creators with considerably greater challenges due to its processing properties. The most famous production facility is Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province, which has been renamed several times over the course of history .

literature

→ Main article : Chinese literature - Tang period

Poetry

Poem and calligraphy by Li Bai
(8th century)

Lyrical poetry experienced a heyday in the Tang Dynasty, in particular the Shi poem, which originally emerged from the Yuefu ("music official song") . A distinction must be made between the formally free traditional form Gushi and the considerably more restricted Jintishi . Well-known Shi poets are Bai Juyi (白居易; 772–846), Dù Mù (杜牧; 803–852), Hán Yù (韓愈; 768–824), Jiǎ Dǎo (賈島; 779–843), Lǐ Qiào (李 峤; 644–713), Liǔ Zōngyuán (柳宗元; 773–819), Luò Bīnwáng (駱賓王; 640–684), Mèng Hàorán (孟浩然; 689–740), Wáng Wéi (王維; 701–761) and Zhāng Jiǔlíng (張九齡; 678-740).

The most important Chinese poets not only of the Tang era, but in the entire history of literature, are Lǐ Bái (李白; 701–762) and Dù Fǔ (杜甫; 712–770). Both worked in a variety of traditional forms. While Li is more of a poet of ephemeral idylls, the glorification of nature, loneliness and wine influenced by Daoism , Du Fu's socially critical traits are more pronounced. Li Bai's poem "Gelage im Mondschein" is widely regarded in the West as the quintessential Chinese poem and has accordingly often been translated into all European cultural languages.

The heavily condensed, yet soulful and allusive poems of Lǐ Shāngyǐn (李商隱; 810–858), containing a multitude of political and philosophical implications, are considered difficult to translate .

The last ruler of the southern Tang empire, Lǐ Hòuzhǔ (李 後主; 936–978), also emerged as a poet . His most famous poems were written after his fall in 975, when the Song emperors took him to Kaifeng as a prisoner . Often they are about the sadness of the lost power and a sad look back at better times. In 978 he was poisoned by the Song Emperor. Li is also to be thanked for the further development of the traditional folk Ci lyric ; in particular, he opened the form to a wider thematic range and, in addition to love songs, now also included historical and philosophical subjects. He also established the two- stanzas form and often worked with the contrast between nine-character lines and the shorter lines with three or five characters.

Novella

The novellas of the Tang period, which often have a fantastic impact, are also highly valued. L Gōngzuǒs (李 公 佐; around 800) The story of the Governor of the Southern District (南柯 太守 傳; Nánkē tàishǒu chuán ), in which the narrator finds a perfect state in a dream experience in an anthill , is very well known . In Fräulein Ren (任氏 傳Rènshì Chuán ) by Shěn Jìjì (沈 既 濟; around 740-800) from the year 781 there is an account of a young man's encounter with a female fox spirit . As an example of a historical novella, Dou Guantings “The old man with the curly beard” is mentioned, as an example of a love story The Life of Miss Li (李娃 傳; Lǐ Wá Chuán ). There are also extensive collections of novels.

painting

→ Main article : Chinese painting - Tang period

Detail from The Thirteen Emperors by Yan Liben (7th century)

Since the Tang Dynasty (618–907), landscapes have been the central motif in Chinese painting; one spoke of Shanshui , the "mountain-water" painting. The purpose of these mostly monochrome creations was less the naturalistic representation than rather to create "atmosphere" and to arouse feelings in the viewer and especially his sense of the harmony of nature.

In general, the same technique was used as the calligraphers and painted with brushes dipped in black or colored ink on silk or paper; the use of oil paints was unknown. As a rule, the pictures were not hung on the wall so much, but rolled up in furniture and only brought out when necessary, for example to show them as particularly art-loving guests.

At the imperial court, Yán Lìběn (閻立本; 600–673), who was also the court painter of the Tang Emperor Taizong , stood out as an official . With his work The Thirteen Emperors , in which well-known rulers from the Han to the Sui period are depicted, he created the oldest known emperor portraits.

Only one work by the Sui painter Zhǎn Zǐqián (展 子 虔; around 600) has survived , Idleness in Spring , in which the mountains are shown in perspective for the first time. It is considered to be the first scenic landscape painting in East Asian art.

Dŏng Yuán (董 源; 934–962), actually a painter of the transition period from the Tang to the Song dynasty, was known for both his portraits and landscapes and contributed significantly to the elegant style, which for the next 900 years Should be the standard of Chinese painting. Like many Chinese artists, he was officially commissioned. He studied in particular the style of Lì Sīxùn (利思 訓; 651–716) and Wáng Wéi (王維; 701–761) and enriched painting with numerous techniques such as the refinement of perspective , pointillist approaches and cross-hatching to achieve a more plastic impression .

Woodcut

The beginnings of the Chinese woodblock art are believed to have been around the time of the Sui dynasty. It was used to illustrate religious works in particular. The cover picture of the Sutra Vajracchedikâ Prajna Paramitâ , which was discovered in Dunhuang in 1907 and is dated to the year 868, is considered the oldest surviving woodcut .

music

→ Main article : Chinese music

The influences from abroad during the Tang period also affected the music: In particular , various new musical instruments were adopted from Central Asia , in particular lutes, zithers and fiddles. The Qin , known since the Han dynasty , flourished. There was also a lively exchange of musicians. During the Tang period, secular music finally emancipated itself from its religious and cultic roots and gained importance in its own right.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

See also : Song Dynasty , Liao Dynasty, and Jin Dynasty (1125-1234)

literature

→ Main article : Chinese literature - Song time

Emperor Huizong , poem and calligraphy (12th century)

The flowering of lyric poetry in the Tang Dynasty continued in the Song era, but for the most part it was based on the models of the past era. The poetry schools already make this clear:

• Bái Jūyì school, most important representative Wáng Yǔchēng (王禹偁; 954–1001), simple style, sometimes socially critical topics
• Xikun school, imitates Lǐ Shāngyǐn , most important representative of Yáng Yì (揚 億; 974-1020), flowery style
• Changli School , imitates Hán Yù ; most famous representative Ōuyáng Xiū (歐陽修; 1007-1072)
• Jiangxi School, most important representative Huáng Tíngjiān (黄庭堅; 1045–1105), u. a. atmospheric natural poetry

The outstanding poet of the Song era was Sū Dōngpō (蘇東坡; 1037–1101), who was already famous during his lifetime and was active in almost all fields of classical Chinese poetry, and in particular through his ode from the journey to the Red Wall (前 赤壁賦Qián Qìbì Fù ) became known.

Folksong- like Ci poetry also experienced an upswing . Representatives of this form of poetry include Sū Dōngpō, Lǐ Qīngzhào (李清照; 1084–1151) and Xīn Qìjí (辛棄疾; 1140–1207). The so-called brush notes, mostly published in collections, also became fashionable in the Song era . Anecdotes, diaries, travelogues can be found among them, but also adventure and ghost stories, jokes, riddles and small prose of all kinds. The oldest work of this kind are the brush notes of the Song Jingwen (宋景文 共 笔记Sòng Jǐngwén Gòng Bǐjì ) of the Sòng Qí (宋祁; 998-1061). The original forms of the later novels History of the Three Kingdoms and The Journey to the West have their origin in the Song era . Theatrical performances are also documented, which developed in later epochs into today's Chinese operas in their respective regional forms.

painting

→ Main article : Chinese painting - Song time

Ma Lin , Listening to the Wind in the Pine Trees (13th century)

Chinese painting in particular reached a high point in the Song Dynasty . The landscape paintings, for example, gained a more subtle expression during this period. For example, the immeasurability of spatial distances was indicated by blurred outlines, mountain silhouettes disappearing in the fog or an almost impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. In the later works of the southern Song dynasty, however, the focus of the later works of the southern Song dynasty is on nature that is more “tamed” and “enjoyed” by art-loving people. Famous landscape painters of the era were Lǐ Táng (李唐; 1047–1127), Guō Xī (郭熙; 960–1127), Mǎ Yuǎn (馬 遠; around 1155–1235; on a mountain path in spring ) and Xià Guī (夏 珪; around 1180-1230).

As in earlier periods, song painting also likes to show people in reverent contemplation in front of nature, but now they no longer necessarily disappear in front of majestic, overwhelming landscapes, but take central positions. In this context, mention should be made of the anonymous distinguished scholar under a willow tree , but above all Mǎ Líns (馬 麟; around 1180–1256) listening to the wind in the pines . The colored miniatures in Chao Yen's Eight Horsemen in Spring also deserve attention .

Animal and plant representations were also a central subject of Song painting . Great admiration learned about Cui Bai (also Ts'ui Po,崔白, active 1068-1077) atmospheric paintings rabbit and jays , as well as the creations of the artistically inclined Emperor Huizong (徽宗; 1082-1135), of which, among others, the two Finches come from bamboo stalks . Other renowned animal and plant painters were Mao I and Wen Tong (文 同; 1018-1079). Another direction of song painting finally took up Buddhist themes and liked to portray Chan Buddhist adepts.

Ultimately , the Confucian , but also chan-Buddhist- influenced and sometimes surprisingly modern-looking Wen-Jen-Hua school, which went back in particular to Sū Dōngpō (蘇東坡; 1037–1101), pioneered the song painting . She broke with the long-undisputed dogma that painting must reproduce its object as naturally as possible, and advocated freer forms of expression. The idea of ​​the Wen Jen Hua school is exemplified in Liáng Kǎi's (梁楷; 1127–1279) famous portrait of Lǐ Bái (李白; 701–762). Other important representatives of this direction are Mǐ Fú (米 芾; 1051–1107), Mǐ Yǒurén (also Mi Yu-jen, 米 友仁; 1086–1165), Mùqī (牧 谿; second half of the 13th century) and Wáng Tíngyún (王庭筠; 1151-1202).

Lacquer art

→ Main article : Chinese lacquer art

A first bloom reached in the song time since the Shang Dynasty famous lacquer technique that came particularly to vessels used. In addition to monochrome work, the so-called scratch lacquer technique has also established itself. After the decoration had been engraved into the top layer of lacquer, the indentations were rubbed out with gold and silver, which resulted in particularly optical effects.

Wallpaper

→ Main article : Chinese wallpaper

The Chinese wallpaper, which was now made almost exclusively from bamboo paper reinforced with linen, also experienced a high point during the Song era. On the one hand, floral patterns with plants, flowers, birds and insects, but also landscape scenes and depictions from everyday life were popular.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)

See also : Yuan Dynasty

Music / drama

→ Main article : Chinese music  and drama in China

The Chinese opera , a very popular in China form of drama , dating to the Tang Dynasty back, when Emperor Xuanzong (712-755) the Pear Garden (梨园Liyuan ) founded the first known opera troupe in China, mainly to the emperor used to perform his own amusement. The term “pupil of the pear orchard” (梨园 子弟), which is still used today for actors, goes back to them. In the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368), forms such as the zájù (杂剧, a kind of vaudeville ) found their way into opera, that based on certain rhyme schemes and the newly introduced specialized roles such as Dàn (旦, female), Shēng (生, male ) and Chǒu (丑, a kind of clown ).

The opera of the Yuan Dynasty lives on today as a Canton Opera . It is generally believed that it was imported from northern China and slowly migrated to the southern province of Guangdong by the end of the 13th century . In the 12th century, there was a form of theater called Narm hei (南 戲), also known as Nanxi ("Southern Opera"), which was performed in the public theaters of Hangzhou , the capital of the Southern Song . After the Mongol invasion , Emperor Gōng (恭帝) fled to Guangdong Province in 1276 with hundreds of thousands of Song supporters. These included Narm-hei artists from the north who laid the foundation for what would later become the Canton Opera.

Many of the operas still performed today, such as The Purple Hairpin and Rejuvenation of the Red Plum Blossom, have their origins in the Yuan dynasty , and their texts are traditionally written in Cantonese . Until the 20th century, women's roles were also traditionally played by men.

painting

→ Main article : Chinese painting - Yuan period

Huang Gongwang, Lingering in the Fuchun Mountains , first half of the work (14th century)

The painters of the Yuan period largely rejected the romanticizing legacy of the southern Song dynasty , which in their eyes was too "pleasing" . Rather, it was linked to the northern song , but above all to the older Tang art, from which the widespread “green-blue manner” was adopted. The tonal gradations of the late songs have disappeared in favor of bold, striking colors, space and the environment are hardly used as design elements. Compared to their role models, the Yuan pictures were often reviled in art history as "reluctantly hypothermic", as "dispassionate".

Particularly appreciated from this period are Huáng Gōngwàng (黄 公 望; 1269–1354), whose late work In the Fuchun Mountains Lingering as one of the most influential pictures in Chinese art history, and Ní Zàn (倪 瓚; 1301–1374) because of his - According to the Chinese view in the best sense of the word - "charmless" style and the deliberately "amateurish" painting technique that distinguished the literary painter from his professional colleagues, the socially less respected "professional painters". Other important representatives of Yuan painting were Zhào Mèngfǔ (趙孟頫; 1254–1322), Qián Xuǎn (錢 選; 1235–1305), Gāo Kègōng (高 克恭; 1248–1310), Lǐ Kàn (1245–1320), Wú Zhèn (吳鎮; 1280–1354), Wáng Miǎn (王冕; 1287–1359) and Wáng Méng (王蒙; 1308–1385).

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

See also : Ming Dynasty

literature

→ Main article : Chinese literature - Ming period

Classical Chinese novels flourished during the Ming Dynasty . For example, it produced the story of the three kingdoms , the robbers of Liang Shan bog , the famous Jin Ping Mei and The Journey to the West (西遊記 Xiyouji).

Small prose also experienced an upswing, for example in the form of extensive collections of written and colloquial short stories . Mention should be made of Qú Yòus (瞿 佑 1341–1427) Jiangdeng xinhua ( New Conversations while cleaning the lamp ), Féng Mènglóngs (馮夢龍; 1574–1645) Sanyan ( The Three Worlds ) from 1620–1627 or Líng Méngchūs (凌 濛 初; 1580–1644) Paian Jingqi ( Hit the table with amazement at the unusual ) from 1628/1632.

The most important poet of the Ming period is Gao Qi , who established a new style in his works by rigidly turning away from tradition. Zhang Dai has achieved fame as an essayist . Finally, Wen Zhenheng , a great-grandson of Wen Zhengming , wrote a classic work on garden architecture and interior design ( superfluous things ).

painting

→ Main article : Chinese painting - Ming period

Emperor Xuande , Playing Monkeys (15th century)

Chinese painting flourished again under the protection of the Ming emperors. An academy for painting was founded in the imperial palace and some emperors distinguished themselves as talented painters, above all Emperor Xuande (宣德; 1399–1435). "Narrative", colorful paintings with a rich composition of figures became particularly popular.

Two schools were established: One of them, the Zhe School , consisting mainly of professional court painters, continued the tradition of the academies of the southern Song dynasty and particularly revived the style of Mǎ Yuǎn . The most important representative of the Zhe school is Dài Jìn (戴 進; 1388–1462). The Wu school , which emerged in the area around Suzhou towards the end of the 15th century , consisted of - socially more highly regarded - amateurs, mostly financially independent scholars. The most important representatives include Shěn Zhōu (沈周; 1427–1509), Wén Zhēngmíng (文徵明; 1470–1559), Táng Yín (唐寅; 1470–1523) and Qiú Yīng (仇 英; 1st half of the 16th century) . The Wu School continued the landscape painting of the northern Song as well as the tradition of the Yuan Dynasty and was particularly linked to the art of Ni Zan .

Towards the end of the dynasty theoreticians also appeared, in particular Dǒng Qíchāng (董其昌; 1555–1636), to whom the division of Chinese painting into a north and a south school goes back. With the advancement of color printing, illustrated handbooks on the art of painting were increasingly published. The five-volume Jièzǐyuán huàzhuàn (芥子 园 画 传; Handbook of the Mustard Seed Garden ), published in 1679, is still considered an indispensable reference work by artists and students alike .

Woodcut

The woodcut , which was developed in the Sui dynasty, experienced an upswing . In particular, a polychrome woodcut was used and served to illustrate historical and literary works ( The West Room , printed by Min Qiji, 1640) as well as painting textbooks ( picture collection of the Ten Bamboo Hall , Hu Chengyen, 1622).

porcelain

→ Main article : Chinese porcelain

Vase, blue and white style

As early as the Yuan dynasty, porcelain, which had been known in China for centuries, had a special position compared to other types of ceramics such as celadon in particular . In the Ming period, however, Chinese porcelain art reached its first peak. The so-called blue and white style established itself ; the blue color was obtained from cobalt aluminate (CoAl ₂ O ₄ ). The style enjoyed great popularity under the Ming Dynasty; In particular, the “Ming vase”, which has become almost proverbial, has a particular impact on the European conception of Chinese porcelain art. The porcelain got its specific shine from the final glaze applied over the painting.

In addition to floral-ornamental motifs, depictions of animals were particularly prevalent. From the early 15th century, more and more importance was attached to a division into a central motif and peripheral ornamental bands and friezes. In the middle of the 16th century, in addition to the classic decorative treasure, landscape motifs, scenes from court life and the Taoist intellectual world as well as depictions from works of classical literature finally established themselves.

The manufacturing techniques were continuously refined, and for the first time multi-colored decorations appeared. In Jingdezhen , the "capital" of Chinese porcelain since the Tang period, numerous new factories were established. For the first time, porcelain was also exported to Europe on Portuguese ships, where it was sold very well at the royal courts.

Lacquer art

→ Main article : Chinese lacquer art

Chinese lacquer art also reached a high level during the Ming period . The scratch varnish of the Song dynasty was increasingly replaced by the so-called carved varnish. Geometric, floral or ornamental patterns were cut from the lacquer, which was applied in several layers, especially on vessels. Sometimes more sophisticated scenic representations were created. In terms of color, red and black paints dominated; special effects were achieved by combining the two colors in the different layers.

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

See also : Qing Dynasty

literature

→ Main article : Chinese literature - Qing period

Scene from The Dream of the Red Chamber by Cao Xueqin

The Qing Dynasty produced numerous important prose works. The classical Chinese novel was particularly popular. The most famous representative of this genre, The Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦Hóng Lóu Mèng ) by Cáo Xuěqín (曹雪芹; 1719–1763), originated in the middle of the 18th century. Wu Jingzi's novel The unofficial history of the forest of scholars from 1749 is a satire on the civil service and examination system of the era .

As the narrator of the small prose form, Pú Sōnglíng (蒲松齡; 1640–1715) with his famous collection Strange Tales from a Scholar's Room (聊齋誌異Liáozhāi zhìyì ) emerged.

Yuan Mei created most of his numerous poems, essays and paintings in the last ten years of his life. His work reflects Yuan's interest in Zen Buddhism and the supernatural. He became famous for his poems, which were praised as "unusually clear and stylistically elegant". In his theoretical work on poetry, the Suíyuán shīhuà (隨 園 詩話), he emphasized the importance of personal feeling as well as technical perfection.

In addition, Emperor Qianlong also endeavored to collect and catalog the existing literary heritage in the form of the Complete Library of the Four Treasures .

music

→ Main article : Chinese music

The Beijing opera is undoubtedly the most famous form of Chinese opera . Even though it did not get its current form until the 19th century, it was already extremely popular in the Qing period . The mostly very allusive plot lives from its strictly choreographed facial expressions and gestures. Traditional Chinese string and percussion instruments provide the rhythmic accompaniment.

Regardless of its name, Peking Opera has its origins in the local operatic traditions, particularly in the provinces of Anhui and Hubei , from which not only two popular main melodies come ( Xipi and Erhuang ), but also the ancient language used in Peking Opera. Influences can also be demonstrated on the part of Qinqiang music. The birth of the Peking Opera is considered to be a performance by theater troupes from Anhui on the occasion of the 60th birthday of Emperor Qianlong in 1790. A joint appearance with actors from Hubei in 1828 brought the Peking Opera into its essentially still valid form.

painting

→ Main article : Chinese painting - Qing period

Giuseppe Castiglione , Emperor Qianlong (18th century)

At the beginning of the Qing dynasty , the literary painters had finally prevailed; In contrast, the professional painters hardly played a role. There are essentially three schools to be distinguished: The so-called orthodox school , which is based on traditional models, carefully built up its pictures line by line and tone by tone, avoiding safer, unbroken lines and simple surfaces. Technical tricks and the achievement of special effects were also largely avoided.

The individualistic school , however, practiced a freer style . Its representatives often worked with dissolved, disembodied forms as well as light-and-shadow effects and thus created, among other things, very atmospheric, inspired landscapes. The so-called Eight Eccentrics from Yangzhou, who were added later, caught the eye because of their downright bizarre way of painting and living . Gāo Qípeì (高 其 佩; 1660–1734), for example, used to paint his pictures with hands, fingers and nails. Finally, as a special case, there is also the painting of the European Jesuit missionaries at the Qing court.

Famous representatives of Qing painting are Wáng Shímǐn (王時敏; 1592–1680), Zhū ​​Dā (朱 耷; 1625–1705), Wú Lì (吴 历; 1632–1718), Shí Tāo (石濤; also Daoji; 1642– 1707), Wáng Huī (王 翬; 1632–1717) and Luó Pìn (羅 聘; 1733–1799). The most important European painter in China was Giuseppe Castiglione . With Zhōu Shūxǐ (周淑禧; 1624–1705) a woman also gained fame as an artist.

porcelain

→ Main article : Chinese porcelain

Plate, famille rose style

Porcelain art, which flourished in the Ming period, was further developed under the Qing. The formerly dominant ornamental blue and white design has been increasingly replaced by colored decor with detailed, figure-rich representations. Scenes at court and in the country, depictions from classical novels and mythological scenes were popular. A distinction must be made between the green family and the pink family, named after their predominant colors . As a contrast, there was the pure white Dehua porcelain , often made into sculptures , which in Europe is often called “Blanc de Chine”. It got its intensely bright color from the addition of a particularly large amount of feldspar.

Qing porcelain art reached a high point under the emperors Kangxi , Yongzheng and Qianlong , who exported the goods to Europe in particular on a large scale. A certain decline was recorded after the production of porcelain for the first time in 1709 at the court of August the Strong in Dresden .

Lacquer art

→ Main article : Chinese lacquer art

In the Qing dynasty, lacquer was no longer only used to cover vessels, caskets and the like, but also furniture and, above all, wall screens.

For the first time, the so-called coromandelion technique emerged : first, several layers of varnish were applied to the colored background. After it was completely dry, filigree patterns were cut into the lacquer so that the colored areas underneath - often only separated by hair-thin ridges - were partially visible again. In this way, sometimes extremely demanding work was created. In the Linden Museum in Stuttgart, for example, you can see a screen that tells the story of the life and work of the Daoist immortals in great detail .

Mother-of-pearl lacquer art, in which filigree patterns and figures made of mother-of-pearl were worked into the lacquer, was also very popular . A famous example of this is the magnificent traveling throne of Emperor Kangxis in the Museum of East Asian Art in Berlin.

Modern

See also : Xinhai Revolution , Republic of China (1912–1949) and May Fourth Movement

literature

After the fall of the monarchy, Chinese literature received considerable new impulses, particularly due to European influences. Milestones were set by the Hu Shi Manifesto of 1916 and the May Fourth Movement , both of which were committed to overcoming the traditional Confucian and modernizing Chinese culture.

prose

Lu Xun , drawing from 1926

The doctor Lǔ Xùn (鲁迅; 1881–1936) is considered the founder of modern Chinese prose . After the fall of the ailing Qing dynasty , he advocated a spiritual realignment of the Chinese people and the overcoming of traditional tutelage in his stories and essays. Although his writings often brought him into conflict with the communists in the 1930s, after his death the Chinese Communist Party, which had now come to power, exploited him for their purposes.

The Manchur Láo Shě (老舍; 1899–1966) is best known for his novel Rikschakuli (駱駝祥子Luòtuo Xiángzi ) and the drama The Tea House (茶館Cháguǎn ).

One of the most political among the writers of Chinese modernism is Máo Dùn (Journal; 1896–1981), who originally came from the field of journalism . Not only did he help found the CCP in 1921, he later worked as Mao's private secretary and eventually as minister of culture. His main works are the novels Silkworms in Spring (春蚕Chūnchiji ) and Shanghai in Twilight (子夜Zǐyè ).

Finally, Bā Jīn (巴金; 1904-2005) owes its literary importance to his broad novels, such as the trilogies Love (爱情Àiqíng ) from 1936 and Heftige Strömung (激流Jīliú ) from 1940, but also to his work as a translator of foreign literature and as a pioneer of the Esperanto movement in China.

Poetry

In the area of ​​poetry, too, Chinese literature shed traditional ties as a result of the Hu Shi Manifesto of 1916 and the May Fourth Movement . For example, modern Chinese poems (新詩 "Freivers") overcome the strict formal requirements of Jintishi and usually no longer follow a specific pattern.

In terms of content, strong influences of European poetry can be identified, for which the poets who have returned from England , France and Germany are particularly responsible. For example, Xu Zhimo ties in his romantic poems to the creations of the English poets Keats and Shelley .

Famous Chinese poets from the period between the fall of the monarchy and the founding of the People's Republic include Hú Shì (胡适 / 胡適; 1891–1962), Kāng Báiqíng (康 白 情; 1896–1959) and Ms. Bīng Xīn (冰心; 1900–1999 ). The universally gifted Guō Mòruò (郭沫若; 1892–1978) also achieved a great deal in the field of poetry .

painting

Xu Beihong , portrait of Mr. Li Yinquan

After the fall of the Qing dynasty, a previously unknown differentiation took place in Chinese painting. Many artists broke away from traditional models under diverse political and cultural influences and developed highly individual styles.

Qí Báishís (齐白石; 1864–1957) pictures are characterized by simple structures and quick, skilful brushstrokes. His preferred subjects include rural scenes, farm implements, but above all depictions of animals and plants that look particularly lifelike.

Xú Bēihóng (徐悲鸿; 1895–1953) imported European techniques into Chinese painting; He became known as a painter of galloping horses . In the 1930s, he created influential paintings such as Tian Heng and Five Hundred Rebels , Jiu Fanggao, and Spring Rain over the Lijiang River . Lín Fēng Mián (林風眠; 1900–1991) , who has long been ostracized by official cultural policy, oriented himself towards more modern works of European art . His work is characterized by bright colors, eye-catching shapes and rich content.

The flower and landscape painter Pān Tiānshòu (潘天壽; 1897–1971) remained more firmly attached to the Chinese tradition . From the academy painters of the Southern Song Dynasty , he took over the work with sharp contrasts and large empty areas. The art of Fù Bàoshís (傅抱石; 1904–1965) also ties in with the individualistic scholar painting Shí Tāos , but was also fed by influences from the Japanese Nihonga school. His style is characterized by swift yet accurate lines and dry texture , as well as extensive washes . Thematically, landscapes and depictions of historical and mythological figures dominate. Lǐ Kěrǎn (李可染; 1907–1989) also specialized in landscape painting . The motto "Write a biography for the mountains and rivers of home" is ascribed to him. He, too, often worked with empty surfaces and paid great attention to the relationship between light and shadow.

Woodcut

The art of woodcut , which had been firmly established in China since the Sui dynasty, experienced a renaissance in the 1930s . The driving force here was Lu Xun , who saw this as an effective propaganda tool in the struggle for the masses, who were mostly ignorant of reading and writing. In 1931 he founded a lecture and study group for woodcut in Shanghai and organized underground exhibitions against the bitter resistance of the ruling Guomindang . In terms of style, in addition to the Chinese tradition, Soviet, Japanese and German influences can also be demonstrated in the woodcuts of this period; In this respect, the art of Käthe Kollwitz also played a central role .

In terms of content, appeals to fight the Japanese invaders dominated at first; after their expulsion, land reform, the development of industry, equal rights for women, the improvement of the health system and the like were discussed. Important wood cutters were Lǐ Huá (李華; 1907–1994) and Gǔ Yuán (古 元; 1919–1996).

Art in the People's Republic of China

See also : People's Republic of China  and Cultural Revolution

literature

Nobel laureate Mo Yan , representative of root literature and author of the Red Cornfield novel cycle

After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Chinese literature was firmly in the grip of official party politics: According to Mao Zedong , it had to “serve the masses” and “take the stand of the masses”. The so-called Yanan guidelines were decisive in this respect . Important writers such as Hú Fēng (胡風; 1902–1985) and Dīng Líng (丁玲; 1904–1986) saw themselves exposed to massive state repression and campaigns. Authors who took on socialist propaganda topics such as the class struggle, the collectivization process in agriculture or the progress of industrialization enjoyed goodwill. Examples include Zhào Shùlǐ (趙樹理; 1906–1970), who became known for example through the novel Changes in the Village of the Li Family (李家庄 的 变迁Lǐjiā zhuāngde biànjiān ) from 1946, Aì Wú (艾芜; 1904–1992) who in his work steeled hundred times (百炼成钢Bǎiliàn Chenggang ) glorifies of 1958 the beauty of industrial production, or you Pengcheng (排舫程; 1921 to 1991), who describes the challenges of Bahnlinienbau. In addition, artistic secondary interests were largely promoted, such as harmless folk stories in epigone-like traditional style or dance songs in the style of the Yangge opera .

As in the field of painting, the political opening of China from 1979 onwards also brought about a certain liberalization of literature. The so-called scar literature (伤痕 文学; shānghén wénxué), for example, addressed the sometimes traumatic experiences of large sections of the population during the times of the Cultural Revolution . Central works of the genre include a. the story The class teacher (班主任; Bānzhǔrèn) by Liú Xīnwǔ (刘心武; * 1942), wounds (伤痕; shānghén) by Lú Xīnhúa (卢新华; * 1954) or the red maple (枫; Fēng) by Zhèng Yì (郑义; * 1947).

The scar literature was followed by the literature of the new period, which was more oriented towards the problems of everyday life . Topics such as bureaucracy, equal rights for women and the need for reform in industry are dealt with here. Well-known representatives are u. a. Jiǎng Zǐlóng (蒋子龍; * 1941) and the author Shén Róng (諶 容; * 1950). In response to the scar literature, the literature on root search (寻根 文学; xúngēn wénxué) also developed. This asks about the historical and cultural foundation that made undesirable developments such as the Cultural Revolution possible in the first place. She also takes a critical look at the construction of Chinese identity. The most important representative is Mò Yán (莫言; * 1955), who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2012 .

An important genre in the PRC with regard to political discourse is still the reportage literature . In addition, an extensive folk and trivial literature was created that met the needs of the broad masses.

The upscale Chinese poetry, which barely existed during the Maoist phase of the People's Republic, also experienced an upswing. The fog poetry (朦胧诗ménglóngshī ), which expresses considerable discomfort in social conditions, should be mentioned in particular . At first it only circulated in private prints and obscure semi-legal magazines. The first and groundbreaking poem of this style was written in 1979 by Běi Dǎos (北岛; * 1949) and was entitled The Answer (回答Huídá ). Other well-known representatives of the fog seal are about Gù Chéng (顾城; 1956–1993) and Shū Tíng (舒婷; * 1952).

However, modern literature was also repeatedly exposed to considerable state repression in phases, in particular in the course of the " Campaign against Mental Pollution " (jingshen wuran) from 1983 onwards. However, it experienced a considerable setback, especially after the suppression of the student protests on Tian'anmen- Place 1989.

Today's Chinese literature includes not only the works of writers or poets from the People's Republic of China, but also works from Taiwan and Chinese works from Singapore , other Southeast Asian countries and Chinese exiles. Gāo Xíngjiàn (高行健; * 1940), who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2000, can be named as the most important representative .

painting

The Beijing art district Dashanzi , or "798" for short, has become the epitome of contemporary Chinese art

After the communists came to power in 1949, the style of socialist realism developed in the Soviet Union was also propagated, on the basis of which art was often mass-produced. At the same time, a rural art movement emerged, which dealt with everyday life in the country in particular on murals and in exhibitions. Traditional Chinese art experienced a certain revival after Stalin's death in 1953 and especially after the Hundred Flower Movement from 1956 to 1957.

Other than the officially sanctioned styles, alternative artists were only able to assert themselves temporarily, with phases of strong state repression and censorship alternating with greater liberalism.

After the suppression of the Hundred Flower Movement and especially in the wake of the Cultural Revolution , Chinese art had largely fallen into lethargy. After Deng's reforms from around 1979, however, a turning point became apparent. Some artists were allowed to travel to Europe for study purposes; exhibitions on contemporary Western art and the publication of the sophisticated art magazine Review of Foreign Art were also tolerated. While the artist group Die Sterne leaned on the traditions of European classical modernism, the painters of the "Schramme" endeavored to master and artistically process the suffering brought on by the cultural revolution in China.

The reins were pulled tighter in 1982, when the government defamed contemporary art as “bourgeois” as part of a “campaign against religious pollution”, closed several exhibitions and staffed the editorial team of Art Monthly with cadres loyal to the line.

As a reaction to the now spreading artistic wasteland, the '85 movement emerged , which referred to Dadaism , especially Marcel Duchamp , as well as American Pop Art and contemporary action art. At least she was able to organize a number of important exhibitions, such as the “Shenzhen Zero Exhibition”, the “Festival of Youth Art” in Hubei in 1986 and the “China / Avant-garde” exhibition in Beijing in 1989. Despite massive suppression and obstruction of Movement 85, she remained Alive for years and ultimately contributed to the protests in Tian'anmen Square in June 1989.

After their bloody suppression, Chinese art came to a standstill again. Some artists emigrated in the period that followed, others continued to work underground. During this time, however, Political Pop emerged , which combines elements of socialist realism with American Pop Art in order to scourge the takeover of capitalist structures based on a still authoritarian state system. Representatives of this direction are, for example, the “New History Group” and the “Group of the Long-Tailed Elephant”. However, the work of this art movement was also hindered to a large extent by the authorities.

Nevertheless, numerous Chinese artists achieved international recognition and were invited to the Kassel Documenta around 2000 . This is not least due to the committed work of museum curators such as Hou Hanru who work outside the People's Republic . But also domestic curators like Gao Minglu spread the idea of ​​art as a powerful force within Chinese culture.

The most important contemporary artists include Ai Weiwei (* 1957), Wang Shugang (* 1960), Fang Lijun (* 1963), Cai Guo-Qiang (* 1957), Ma Liuming (* 1969), Zhang Huan (* 1965), Wang Guangyi (* 1956), Xu Bing (* 1955), Wu Shan Zhuan (* 1960), Huang Yong Ping (* 1954), Wenda Gu (* 1956), Lu Shengzhong (* 1952) and Ma Qingyun (* 1965) .

Movie

→ Main article : History of cinema in the People's Republic of China

In the first phase of the People's Republic, the film industry was firmly in the grip of the party and was largely instrumentalized for propaganda purposes. Central works of this time are, for example, “The Red Women's Battalion” (红色 娘子军; Hóngsè niángzi jūn) from 1961 or “The East is Red” (东方 红; Dōngfāng hóng) from 1965. During the Cultural Revolution, however, film production almost completely came to a standstill . After operations resumed from around 1972, more independent films were produced, some of which also met with great international recognition and even gained considerable influence on “Western” cinema. The wuxia film and the martial arts films should be mentioned in particular . Modeled after the Biennale in Venice has been for the Chinese film world Gwangju Biennale created.

music

Appearance by rock musician Cui Jian , 2008

Chinese rock , which emerged on the mainland in the 1980s, traditionally combines Chinese musical instruments with western rock 'n' roll music. Historically, it started with the Xīběifēng style (西北 风, "northwest wind") , which emerged in 1986 and was strongly idealistic and political . In 1988 the more melancholy Qiúgē (囚 歌, "prison songs") were added. Chinese rock, on the other hand, experienced its breakthrough in 1989 when it became a means of expression for the student protests on Tian'anmen Square, among other things . Well-known Chinese rock bands and musicians are Hūxī (呼吸, “breathing”), Yǎnjìngshé (眼镜蛇, “cobra”), Zāng Tiānshuò (臧天朔, “lucky moon ”), Bùdǎowēng (不倒翁, “infallible”), Cui Jian and - perhaps the best known - Hēi Bào (黑豹, "Black Panther").

In addition, the Cantopop produced in the area around Canton and Hong Kong should be mentioned, which, in addition to elements of traditional Chinese music, took up influences from jazz , rock , blues and electronic music. The most important performers include Anita Mui , Leslie Cheung , Alan Tam , Priscilla Chan , Danny Chan , Jacky Cheung , Andy Lau and the band Beyond . Taiwan finally established itself as the Far Eastern stronghold of Chinese hip hop .

Media art

Influences of globalization are taken up as a stimulus in the younger generation. Cao Fei , who lives in Beijing, is an important exponent of this trend, which combines video and computer art with traditional elements.

Chinese folk art

While the above-mentioned art forms were primarily received by the upper social classes, especially the scholarly class, a broader class of accessible folk art developed in China.

Fine arts

New year picture for the 25th year of the Guangxu era (1899/1900)

In the field of painting or woodcut art, the so-called door pictures should first be mentioned, depictions of gods, mythological figures or historical figures that are supposed to bring protection and blessing to your own home. From this the thematically more demanding New Year's pictures, which are renewed every year , developed, which depict scenes from old folk tales and dramas in detail. Both art forms experienced a renaissance when they were discovered as a propaganda instrument by the communist regime of the People's Republic of China in the early 1950s. In the course of this, the Chinese peasant painting propagated by the party emerged .

Performing arts

There is also the Chinese puppet theater (傀儡 戯; kuǐlěixì also: 木偶 戯; mùǒuxì), in which stories are told or comic monologues or dialogues are held to the sound of rattles, drums or string instruments. A distinction must be made between playing with marionettes, stick puppets, iron wire puppets and hand puppets. There is also a special form of shadow theater : Here, 30–70 cm tall figures, reminiscent of filigree paper cutting and covered with beef parchment, are moved by invisible actors in front of a light source. Thematically, the puppet theater picks up on folk material from the Chinese tradition, which, however, are usually played very freely and improvising.

Acrobatics , tight rope dancing , juggling and animal demonstrations have also enjoyed great esteem since the Han period .

literature

By contrast, the majority of the Chinese people were naturally excluded from literature for a long time because of their illiteracy . At the beginning of the 20th century, however, the so-called picture narratives appeared. They mostly convey popular and entertaining material and, in addition to the sequence of images, make use of a simple, concise rudimentary language with about a thousand characters. They too were instrumentalized for political propaganda from various sides. One example is the pictorial narrative directed against the Yuan Shikai regime , The Story of a Monkey Government . With increasing literacy, extensive trivial literature also emerged in the People's Republic .

Reception of Chinese Art in the West

Landscape with a mandarin tree , fresco by Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo , 1757

In addition to silk, precious metals and spices, Chinese artifacts have also reached Europe to a limited extent by land, especially the Silk Road , since ancient times . However, there was a surge in art exports after the Portuguese discovered the sea route to China in 1514.

porcelain

At first it was the Portuguese and Spanish who shipped large quantities of mainly Chinese porcelain and lacquer work to Europe. King Philip II of Spain already owned a porcelain collection of more than 3,000 pieces. In the 17th century, however, the East India trade increasingly passed into the hands of the Dutch and British. From the Dutch ports, royal courts throughout Europe were supplied in particular with the popular blue and white porcelain . It was not only used as utensils, but also enjoyed great popularity as a fireplace attachment or equipment for the famous "porcelain cabinets" of European castles. In some cases, porcelain was even made in China specifically for export (see also Chinese made-to-order porcelain ).

Very soon people in Europe tried to imitate Chinese porcelain. The first attempts have already been made for Italy in the late 15th century, although the end product was probably more of a milky glass. Later, the blue and white porcelain influenced the European art of faience , especially the production of the Delft manufactories. However, it was not until 1709 that Johann Friedrich Böttger, who worked at the court of August the Strong in Dresden , succeeded in producing real porcelain . In the course of the 18th century, manufactories were set up at all the leading royal courts on the continent (after Meissen, among others, Vienna, Sèvres, Nymphenburg, Copenhagen, Naples). Later on, porcelain eventually became an important part of everyday European culture.

Lacquer art

Chinese lacquer art was also exported , although the products of Japan were generally preferred. At the time of great art exports, the island kingdom had long outstripped its role model China in this area. On the one hand, lacquered furniture with elaborate paintings or incrustations enjoyed great appreciation. On the other hand, people used to like to panel up princely art galleries with the components of dismantled wall screens. As collectors of lacquer work, u. a. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg and King Karl II of England; both had come into contact with Chinese art for the first time during study visits to Holland.

Wallpaper

A third popular export was Chinese wallpapers , which were shipped to Amsterdam and London in particular and from there distributed to the European royal courts. Later they were first imitated as part of the chinoiserie fashion, before they finally became the starting point for an independent, independent European wallpaper culture.

Chinoiseries

Chinese painting was initially less received. At best, Chinese motifs found their way into European art in a very distorted form, namely via the way of the chinoiseries that came into fashion in the 18th century . “Typical” landscapes with pagodas and pavilions, ponds and arched bridges as well as the corresponding population can be found on tapestries, wall hangings and wallpaper. Sometimes people tried - mostly rather clumsily - to imitate Chinese architecture; one of the best-known examples of this is the Saxon Pillnitz Castle near Dresden or the Villa Valmarana near Vicenza . Was also taken up the Chinese garden art , the first time in 1759 by William Chambers in Kew Gardens .

• 

  Tapestry canvas , Emperor Kangxi with Jesuits

• 

  Chinese house in Sanssouci

• 

  Pillnitz Castle

• 

  Peace Pagoda in Battersea Park

The discovery of Chinese literature

The reception of Chinese literature was a long time coming until around 1900. For Germany, Richard Wilhelm started with his translations of the classics of the Chinese intellectual world such as Confucius and Laozi . As a result, poets such as Hans Bethge , Klabund , Otto Julius Bierbaum , Bertolt Brecht and Hermann Hesse discovered the creations of their Far Eastern colleagues, particularly Li Bais and Du Fus ; In the English-speaking modern age, Ezra Pound in particular took up the method of Chinese poetry. Witter Bynner's The Jade Mountain (1929), a rewrite of poems from the Tang Dynasty , was also widely received . In addition to mere translations or rewritten texts, Chinese influences can also be demonstrated in the authors' own works. In this respect, Franz Kuhn has also achieved great merits , who with his translations of key novels such as The Dream of the Red Chamber made Chinese literature accessible to a broader German-speaking readership, albeit always in greatly abbreviated translations.

Chinese art in European museums

There are larger collections of Chinese art. a. in the following European museums:

• Museum of Asian Art in Berlin-Dahlem ( website ); Main focus: antique bronzes, ink painting, practical art
• Museum for East Asian Art in Cologne ( website ); Focus: bronze art, ceramics, numerous temporary exhibitions
• Übersee-Museum Bremen ( website )
• Linden Museum Stuttgart ( website ); Focus: ceramics, lacquer art, Tang grave cult
• Museum Five Continents ( website ); only one room China; Focus: practical art
• Residenzmuseum Munich ( website ); chinese porcelain
• Dresden Zwinger ( website ); chinese porcelain
• Museum of Ethnology Dresden ( website ); Focus: porcelain, utility and folk art
• Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum , Braunschweig ( website ); Main focus: Yixing ceramics , mother-of-pearl lacquer art, small soapstone sculpture
• Museum for Lacquer Art , Münster ( website ); exclusively lacquer art
• German Leather Museum , Offenbach ( website ); Focus: puppet theater
• German Wallpaper Museum , Kassel ( website ); exclusively wallpaper
• International Ceramic Museum , Weiden ( website ); porcelain only
• Museum of Applied Art , Frankfurt am Main ( website ); Focus: small sculptures, practical art
• Museum of Applied Arts (Vienna) ( website ); Main focus: porcelain, small plastic
• Rietberghaus , Zurich ( website ); Focus: large Buddhist sculpture, ink painting
• Musée Guimet Paris ( website ); Main focus: Tang grave cult, porcelain, furniture, ink painting
• Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire , Brussels, ( website ); Focus: textiles, ink painting, grave ceramics
• Pavillon Chinois , Brussels (MRAH branch in Brussels-Laaken, website ); Focus: porcelain
• British Museum London ( website ); Focus: Large Buddhist sculpture, Tang grave sculpture,
• Victoria and Albert Museum London ( website ); Main focus: large Buddhist sculptures, porcelain
• Museo Nazionale d'Arte Orientale "Giuseppe Tucci" Rome ( website ); Focus: small sculptures
• Ferenc Hopp Museum Budapest ( website ); Focus: Small plastic
• Thorn Art Museum (Poland); Focus: Small plastic
• Topkapı Sarayı Istanbul ( website ); chinese porcelain
• Musée Cernuschi , Paris
• 88-Mocca: The Museum of Chinese Contemporary Art on the Web virtual exhibition of the collection

Chinese art in non-European museums

• Museum of Chinese in America , New York City

See also

Buddhist art , Chinese architecture , Chinese calligraphy , Chinese cuisine , Chinese Culture , Chinese lacquer art , Chinese literature , Chinese painting , Chinese music , Chinese nature poetry , Chinese Opera , Chinese puppet theater , Chinese shadow theater , Chinese porcelain , Chinese wallpaper , Chinese Garden , martial arts , National Palace Museum Beijing , National Palace Museum Taipei , Suiseki , Bonsai

Commons : Category: Chinese Art  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

literature

• Richard M. Barnhart et al. a .: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting . New Haven 2002, ISBN 0-300-09447-7 .
• Franca Bedin: How do I recognize Chinese art? Belser, Stuttgart 1987, ISBN 3-7630-1994-4 .
• James Cahill : The Chinese Painting . Skira, Geneva 1960.
• James Cahill: Chinese Painting 11. – 14. Century . Torch bearer publishing house, Hanover 1961.
• Lilian Chi et al. a .: A Dictionary of Chinese Ceramics . Singapore 2003, ISBN 981-04-6023-6 .
• Craig Clunas: Art in China . Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-19-284207-2 .
• Salvatore Diglio: Urban Development and Historic Heritage Protection in Shanghai. In: Fabio Maniscalco (Ed.): Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony. Vol. 1, No. 1, January-June 2006. ISSN  1827-8868 .
• Gabriele Fahr-Becker: East Asian Art. Ullmann, Königswinter 2006, ISBN 978-3-8331-4982-5 .
• Eugen Feifel: History of Chinese Literature . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1959.
• David Gowers et al. a .: Chinese Jade from the Neolithic to the Qing . Chicago 2002, ISBN 1-58886-033-7 .
• Stephen Little: Taoism and the Arts of China . Berkeley 2000, ISBN 0-520-22784-0 .
• Prudence Oliver Harper: China. Dawn Of A Golden Age (200-750 AD) . New Haven 2004, ISBN 0-300-10487-1 .
• Gloria and Robert Mascarelli: The Ceramics of China, 5000 BC to 1900 AD . Lancaster PA 2003, ISBN 0-7643-1843-8 .
• Gerhard Pommeranz-Liedtke: Chinese Art Creation - Present and Tradition . German Academy of Arts, Berlin 1954.
• Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer: History of Chinese literature . Beck, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-45337-6 .
• Peter Charles Sturman: Mi Fu: Style and the Art of Calligraphy in Northern Song China . New Haven 2004, ISBN 0-300-10487-1 .
• Michael Sullivan: The Arts of China . Berkeley 2000, ISBN 0-520-21877-9 .
• Mary Tregear: Chinese Art . London / New York 1997, ISBN 0-500-20299-0 .
• Renée Violet: Introduction to the Art of China. Seemann, Leipzig 1986.
• William Watson: The Arts of China to AD 900 . New Haven 1995, ISBN 0-300-05989-2 .

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on July 30, 2006 in this version .