Chinese literature

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Poem and calligraphy by Lǐ Bái (8th century)

Like literature in almost all cultures, Chinese literature is not only a reflection of the respective society and life, but also often a political issue itself. Excellent reading and writing skills and eloquence often led to high civil servant status . This position usually also made it possible to actively contribute to the development of Chinese philosophy . Some emperors were also successful as poets and writers.

Along with language, literature has changed over time. Not only have word expressions or sentence structures changed, but also the pronunciation. This explains, for example, why the poems from the time before the Qin dynasty no longer rhyme with a modern Chinese reading. It is precisely because of the poetry that classic or ancient Chinese pronunciations can be reconstructed using the poetry rules.

Chinese literature also exerted an influence on the surrounding regions, especially the literatures of Korea , Japan and Vietnam . At the same time, she has repeatedly absorbed external influences. Many eminent writers like Li Bai were born outside of China. She owed a substantial impulse to a. contact with western peoples via the Silk Road as well as with peoples from the south.

The beginnings

Inscriptions on oracle bones date from the Shang dynasty . The first Chinese written documents that can be referred to as literature in the strict sense of the word come from the Zhou dynasty . At the end of this period, a large number of works had already been written, from philosophical treatises to history books and collections of poetry. Some of these texts are likely from even earlier times and give us a glimpse into those dark times.

The most important philosophers, whose texts also have literary value, include Confucius (孔子, Kǒngzi , "Master Kong"), Laotse (老子, Lǎozi , "Master Lao", author of the Tao Te King , 道德 經), Zhuangzi (莊子, Zhuāngzi , "Master Zhuang"), Mengzi (孟子, Mèngzi , Latin Mencius, "Master Meng") and Mozi (墨子, Mòzi ). The work of Sunzi (孫子, Sūnzi ), The Art of War (孫子兵 法, Sunzi bingfa ) is not only a manual for military leaders, but also has a high literary value.

The works of Confucius exerted the greatest influence, if only because of the state religion-like position to which Confucianism was elevated during the Han period. It is not without good reason that the works around him and the Ru 儒 school can be understood as political manuals for correct governance. His works were grouped together with other Confucian works in the Five Classics and Four Books during the Song Dynasty . The Five Classics are collections of texts from the Zhou period or even before. The Shi Jing , the Chinese Book of Songs , should be emphasized here, in which songs of that time were collected. It begins with the songs that were sung at religious rites in the royal family and ends with folk songs from the princely states. All songs have exactly four characters per line. The folk songs in particular are still occasionally quoted today.

The poet Qu Yuan (屈原) achieved a unique position with his Chuci or elegies from Chu (楚辭, compiled in the 2nd century AD), which are characterized by their long, relatively free and emotionally charged poems.

Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)

The book Recordings of a Great Historian (史記, Shĭ Jì ) by Sima Qian (司馬遷) is not only an important work of Chinese historiography, at the same time it is also a very high literary work that is still cited in Chinese textbooks for Classical Chinese today.

During the Han period, poem forms have evolved, creating two traditions. One tradition followed the style of the loose lyric poetry of Qu Yuan and is called Fu (賦, Fù ). This tradition also imitated Qu Yuan's example in terms of mood (sadness or expressions of displeasure). The other tradition developed from the poems of the Book of Songs , which followed the very strict prosodic rules . Particularly popular were poems with five or seven syllables per line of verse (五言 古詩, Wuyan Gushi , or 七言 古詩, Qiyan Gushi ), which are counted among the "poems in the old style" (古詩, Gushi ). These two meters were to develop in a more developed form (近 體 詩, Jintishi or "Poems in the Modern Style") especially during the Tang Dynasty . The Han emperors also tried to collect folk songs (樂府, Yuefu ) from all parts of the empire.

Another great genre of literature was prose . Most of these texts commented on a specific political issue or gave advice to the emperor. According to today's interpretation, they can be counted to the genre of political Chinese essays .

The time between Han and Tang (220–618)

Cao Pi , detail from the Thirteen Emperor Scroll , 7th century

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty , the pentasyllabic poem form (five characters per line) reached its peak. Even statesmen like Cao Cao and his sons Cao Pi and Cao Zhi wrote works in this form of poetry and achieved a high level in it. The poet Cai Wenji , who lived at the same time, wrote a long poem in this form about her experiences in the captivity of the Xiongnu , which reached a length of over a hundred lines. Folk songs also made use of this form of poetry. The best-known example is the poem Mulan Ci (木蘭 辭), which told the story of the young woman Hua Mulan , who joined the army in place of her father and fought against the Huns. Due to the Disney film adaptation (which, however, greatly changes the course of the plot) , the story has also become known in the western hemisphere. All in all, literary production during the turmoil between the Han and Tang dynasties is a bit few and far between when compared to the eras before and after.

Tang Dynasty (618-907)

The Tang Dynasty has always been considered to be the peak of the Chinese imperial era, so it is not surprising that numerous literary works from this period have survived to this day. The social wealth, the social security and an unusual political freedom of expression, especially at the beginning of the Tang period, produced a firework of literary creativity.

Poetry

The pentasyllabic and heptasyllabic poem forms, especially the Lüshi (律詩, “regular eight-line”) and the Jueju (絕句, “four-line”), flourished in particular . A collection of poems compiled in the Qing Dynasty , All Tang Poems (全 唐詩), contains over 48,900 poems by over 2,200 poets. Outstanding representatives of this era are the three poets Li Bai (李白), Du Fu (杜甫) and Bai Juyi (白居易).

Lǐ Bái , ink painting by Liáng Kǎi

Li Bai , who lived in the heyday of Tang rule, was hailed as a genius during his lifetime and was a welcome guest in high society (including the imperial court). His unbridled and undisciplined lifestyle barred his access to a civil service career. For this he wandered through the whole empire and sang about the country and the people in his poems. Although these very exact syllable numbers and stress schemes follow, they appear unsophisticated and are permeated by Li Bai's thirst for freedom, sometimes you can also sense a certain arrogance in his lines. Li Bai still enjoys the status of "poetry saint" in China today. You Fu’s lifetime overlaps in part with that of Li Bai. Du Fu saw the Tang Dynasty severely weakened by the An Lushan Rebellion and subsequent wars. In his poems he described the real life of the people of that time. Many of his poems have freed themselves from the limitations of the four- or eight-line meter; they are long narrative poems. They are also written in a language that is easy to understand. Bai Juyi lived towards the end of the Tang period. He also wrote longer poems that seem freer than the poems from earlier times.

A literary movement of the Tang period is the ancient language movement (古文 運動). The representatives of this movement propagated a return to the unadorned, concise and more objective language of the Han and pre-Han times. They turned against the artificial usage of language that had flourished in China since the time of the North and South Dynasties . Many writers in this movement are excellent essayists. Particularly famous representatives of this trend are Han Yu (韓愈) and Liu Zongyuan (柳宗元). There have been several currents in Chinese history whose battle cry was a return to an earlier, simpler and more concise language. The ancient language movement of the Tang period was the first and also one of the most enduring.

Tang novella

The novellas of the Tang Dynasty have a comparatively complex narrative structure and are traditionally divided into four groups, namely love stories , historical stories , heroic stories and fantastic stories .

The epoch has become known mainly for its fantastic novels, which are usually referred to as Chuanqi (傳奇, literally "reports of strange events"). Although they play in the real world of the Tang period and often refer to well-known locations, especially in the capital Chang'an , they often bring the protagonist into contact with supernatural or fantastic worlds. The story of the governor of the southern district (南柯 太守 傳, Nánkē tàishǒu zhuàn ) by Li Gongzuo (李 公 佐), in which the narrator finds a perfect state in a dream experience in an anthill , should be mentioned in particular . In Miss Ren (任氏 傳, Rènshì zhuàn ) by Shen Jiji (沈 既 濟) from the year 781, there is an account of a young man's encounter with a female fox spirit .

An example of a historical novel is Du Guangtings (杜光庭; 850–933) The Old Man with the Curly Beard (虯髯客 傳, Qiuranke zhuan ), which glorifies the founder of the Sui dynasty , Emperor Wen . One of the best-known love stories of the era is the life of Miss Li (李娃 傳, Lǐ Wá zhuàn ), which is about the love of a young scholar for a dissolute, but ultimately refined courtesan.

There are also extensive collections of novels; Particular mention should be made of the reports of the mysterious and extraordinary (玄 怪 錄, Xuanguai lu ) by Niu Sengru (牛僧孺; 780–848), the reports from the palace room (宣 室 志, Xuanshi Zhi ) by Zhang Du (張 讀; 834 [?] - 882) as well as the collection of the unheard of (异 闻 集, Yiwen Ji ) by Chen Han (陈翰).

Song Dynasty (around 960-1279)

The Song dynasty is a relatively weak and unstable dynasty in Chinese history, nonetheless it was a heyday of Chinese classical art, probably also helped by the strong promotion of the Song emperors. For example, Emperor Huizong von Song himself was a talented painter and calligrapher and had appointed many artists to high officials who, however, all failed in their offices and thus sealed the fate of the Northern Song Dynasty .

The flowering of lyric poetry in the Tang Dynasty continued in the Song era, but for the most part it was based on the models of the past era. Many poets expressly committed themselves to a specific "school" bearing the name of the historical model. The so-called Bái Jūyì style (after Bái Jūyì , 白居易; 772–846), whose most important representative is Wáng Yǔchēng (王禹偁; 954–1001), is characterized by simple language and socio-critical traits . The flowery sentimental style of the Tang poet Lǐ Shāngyǐn (李商隱; 813–858), however, was imitated by the Xikun school (西崑) led by Yang Yi (楊 億; 974–1020) . It owes its name to a song-time anthology of poems named after the Xikun Mountains. The Changli School (昌黎), however, goes back to the studio name (à, hào ) of the Tang poet Hán Yù (韓愈; 768–824), who is admired by her . It is commonly seen as a reaction to the older song lyrics, especially the Xikun tradition. The most famous representative was Ōuyáng Xiū (歐陽修; 1007-1072). In the southern Song period, the Jiangxi School (江西), named after the home province of its spiritual head Huáng Tíngjiān (黄庭堅; 1045–1105), was added, which produced particularly atmospheric natural poetry.

Sū Dōngpō (蘇東坡; 1037–1101) was the outstanding poet of the Song era . Unlike many of his colleagues, he was generally held in high regard during his lifetime. He was active in almost all fields of classical Chinese poetry and wrote Ci songs (詞) and rhapsodies ( Fu , 賦) as well as all kinds of poems in the old and new styles ( Shi poetry , 詩). His ode about the trip to the Rote Wand (前 赤壁賦, Qián Chìbì Fù ) has become particularly famous .

The Ci poem experienced a more independent development . In contrast to the poetry form of the Tang period, the Ci have different sentence lengths and are thus freer and more emotional. Ci were originally folk songs that were later recorded by the writers. They were still sung at the time of the song. Representatives of this form of poetry include Sū Dōngpō, Lǐ Qīngzhào (李清照; 1084–1151) and Xīn Qìjí (辛棄疾; 1140–1207). In a later collection of poems called Alle Ci-Gedichte der Song-Zeit (全 宋詞, Quán Sòng-Cí ) almost 20,000 poems by over 1,300 poets were included.

The so-called brush notes (筆記, Bǐjì ), mostly short prose pieces of essay content, which were often published in collections and are valued today as valuable sources of cultural history, also became fashionable during the Song era . Anecdotes, diaries, travelogues can be found among them, but also adventure and ghost stories, jokes, riddles and small prose of all kinds. The oldest work of this kind are the brush notes of Song Jingwen (宋景文 公 筆記, Sòng Jǐngwén Gōng Bǐjì ) of Sòng Qí (宋祁; 998-1061).

Finally, other forms of literature emerged in the Song era, which were further developed in the later epochs, for example the archetypes of the later novels History of the Three Kingdoms and The Journey to the West emerged during this time. Theatrical performances are also documented, which developed in later epochs into today's Chinese operas in their respective regional forms.

Yuan Dynasty (1261-1368)

During the Yuan Dynasty , the theater, which had already emerged during the Song period, reached a peak. Of the more than 600 works known by name, more than 160 have survived to this day, some of them are still very popular and continue to be part of the often performed repertoire of traditional theaters.

The rule of the Mongols also led to a mixture of cultures, so numerous heroic epics emerged at this time, the protagonists of which were, for example, of Tibetan or Mongolian descent.

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

Classical Chinese novels flourished during the Ming Dynasty . In addition to The Dream of the Red Chamber , most of the major classical novels were written at this time, including the four classical novels Tales of the Three Kingdoms , The Robbers of Liang Shan Bog , Jin Ping Mei, and Journey West .

  • The story of the three realms is based on the historical time of the three realms , whereby the author of the later version took the liberty of incorporating his own fantasies and dramaturgical elements. In the novel, the Shu Han is portrayedas the “good” empire and the Wei dynasty as the “evil” empire. This representation still shapes the popular image of that era.
  • Even Water Margin based on a historical fact. It is about a group of robbers who gathered on the Liang Shan Bog in Shandong during the Song Dynasty . Similar to Robin Hood , they declared war on corrupt officials.
  • Jin Ping Mei is a side story about the robbers from Liang Shan Bog . The novel captivates above all with the very revealing description of sexuality and is stillbannedin its uncensored version in the People's Republic of China .
  • The Journey West is a fantastic story based on the historical journey of a Buddhist monk who went to India to bring Buddhist sutras to China. Protected by three magical students, the most famous of which is the Monkey King (and of whom the book is largely concerned), the monk has to experience a total of 81 dangerous adventures before he can bring the sutras to China and is then personally received by Buddha. The journey to the west provides inspiration to this day, for example for Japanese mangas (see Dragonball ).

But the small prose also flourished. Qu You published his high-level Jiangdeng xinhua ( New Conversations while Cleaning the Lamp ) as early as 1378 . Towards the end of the dynasty, however, increasingly colloquial works (translated Huaben話本) by: Feng Menglongs work Sanyan ( three calls ) from 1620 to 1627 includes three collections named Yushi Mingyan ( Clear words to brighten the world ), Jingshi Tongyan ( Rigorous Words to Cheer up the World ) and Xingshi Hengyan ( Haunting Words to Disenchant the World ). The collection of novels Pai'an Jingqi ( Hit the table with amazement at the unusual ) by Ling Mengchu from 1628/1632 has also become famous.

The theater was also developed; regionally different forms of performance emerged.

During the Ming Dynasty, China experienced a renewed renaissance of ancient poetry. The effect of this later movement, however, was limited.

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

Scene from the novel The Dream of the Red Chamber , portrayal by Xu Bao, 1810

The Qing Dynasty is the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history and also the longest-running dynasty that is not formed by the Han Chinese . In order to consolidate their rule, intellectuals were particularly persecuted at the beginning of the dynasty. In addition, the introduction of a highly formalized and strictly Confucian form of the state examination forced the training of future civil servants into a tight intellectual corset. These policies resulted in literary innovations and new philosophical theories being rare during the Qing period. A notable exception is the novel The Dream of the Red Chamber . The detailed description of the downfall of an upper-class family provided plenty of insight into life, customs and the situation at that time. Wu Jingzi's novel The unofficial history of the forest of scholars from 1749 is a satire on the civil service and examination system of the era .

Pú Sōnglíng (Form; 1640–1715) with his famous collection Liaozhai Zhiyi ( Chinese  聊齋誌異 , Pinyin Liáozhāi zhìyì  - " Strange stories from a scholar's room ") emerged as the narrator of the small prose form .

It was not until the end of the Qing dynasty that new literary impulses emerged - aided by the contact with Western culture - especially in the free atmosphere of open trading cities such as Canton and Shanghai . A masterpiece of this late period is the novel Life Descriptions of Flowers by the Lake (海上花 列傳, The Flowers of Shanghai ) written in Wu by Han Bangqing in 1892 (translated into Mandarin and into English by Eileen Chang ).

Modern

Modern Chinese literature began in the 20th century . The turn to everyday language at the expense of the classical language , which the people barely understand , went hand in hand with the deep social cut caused by the transition from the imperial dynasty to the republic. Many Western forms have been adapted and incorporated into Chinese literature with great success. Milestones were set by the Hu Shi Manifesto of 1916 and the so -called May Fourth Movement , both of which had committed themselves to overcoming the traditional Confucian and modernizing Chinese culture. They also tried to combat the literature of the so-called mandarin ducks and butterflies , although the works of this group were among the most widely read literature of their time.

prose

The doctor Lǔ Xùn (鲁迅; 1881–1936) is considered the founder of modern Chinese prose . After the fall of the ailing Qing dynasty , he advocated a spiritual realignment of the Chinese people and the overcoming of traditional tutelage in his stories and essays. Although his writings often brought him into conflict with the Communists in the 1930s, after his death he was instrumentalized for their purposes by the Communist Party of China, which had now come to power . His most famous work is Applause (吶喊, Nàhǎn ).

Ba Jin, 1938

The Manchur Lǎo Shě (老舍; 1899–1966) is best known for his novel Rikschakuli (駱駝祥子, Luòtuo Xiángzi ) and the drama Das Teehaus (茶館; Cháguǎn ). Lao She , however, is only his pseudonym , his real name is Shū Qìngchūn (舒慶春).

One of the most political among the writers of Chinese modernism is Máo Dùn (茅盾; 1896–1981), who originally came from journalism . Not only did he help found the CCP in 1921, he later worked as Mao's private secretary and eventually as minister of culture. His main works are the novels Silkworms in Spring ( Chūnchiji ; 春蚕) and Shanghai in Twilight ( Zǐyè ; 子夜).

Bā Jīn (巴金; 1904–2005) finally owes its literary importance to his broad novels, such as the trilogies Love ( Aìqíng ; 爱情) from 1936 and Heftige Strömung ( Jīliú ; 激流) from 1940, but also to his work as a translator of foreign literature and as Champion of the Esperanto movement in China.

Poetry

In the area of ​​poetry, too, Chinese literature shed traditional ties as a result of the Hú Shì Manifesto of 1916 and the so-called May 4th Movement . For example, modern Chinese poems (新詩, “Freivers”) overcome the strict formal requirements of Jintishi and usually no longer follow a specific pattern.

In terms of content, strong influences from European poetry can be identified, for which the poets who have returned from England , France and Germany are particularly responsible. For example, Xu Zhimo ties in his romantic poems to the creations of the English poets Keats and Shelley .

Famous Chinese poets from the period between the fall of the monarchy and the founding of the People's Republic include Hú Shì (胡适 / 胡適; 1891–1962), Kāng Báiqíng (康 白 情, 1896–1959) and Ms. Bīng Xīn (冰心; 1900–1999 ). The universally gifted Guō Mòruò (郭沫若; 1892–1978) also achieved a great deal in the field of poetry .

People's Republic of China

After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Chinese literature was firmly in the grip of official party politics: According to Mao Zedong , it had to “serve the masses” and “take the stand of the masses”. The so-called Yan'an guidelines were decisive in this respect . The political wind blew, especially during various campaigns more restrictive in between more liberal. Important writers such as Hú Fēng (胡風; 1902–1985) and Dīng Líng (丁玲; 1904–1986) saw themselves exposed to massive state repression and campaigns. Authors who took on socialist propaganda topics such as the class struggle, the collectivization process in agriculture or the progress of industrialization enjoyed goodwill. Mention should be made of Zhào Shùlǐ (趙樹理; 1906–1970), who became known through the novel Lijia zhuangde banjian (“Changes in the village of the Li family”) from 1946, Aì Wú (艾芜; 1904–1992), the Glorifies the beauty of industrial production in his work Bailian chenggang (“A hundredfold steel”) from 1958, or Du Pengchéng (排 舫 程; 1921–1991), who describes the challenges in railway line construction. In addition, artistic secondary interests were largely promoted, such as harmless folk stories in epigone-like traditional style or dance songs in the style of the Yangge opera .

During the so-called Cultural Revolution (approx. 1966–1976) literary production came to a largely standstill, only a few ideological models were allowed, and some writers were victims of campaigns. As in the field of painting, the political opening of China from 1979 onwards also brought about a certain liberalization of literature. The so-called scar literature (伤痕 文学, shānghén wénxué ), for example, addressed the sometimes traumatic experiences of large sections of the population during the times of the Cultural Revolution. Central works of the genre include a. the story Banzhuren ("The Class Teacher") by Liú Xīnwǔ (刘心武; * 1942), Shanghen ("Wounds") by Lú Xīnhúa (卢新华; * 1954) or Feng ("Red Maple") by Zhèng Yì (郑义; * 1947).

The literature on wounds was followed by the "literature of the new period", which is more focused on the problems of daily life. Topics such as bureaucracy, equal rights for women and the need for reform in industry are dealt with here. Well-known representatives are u. a. Jiǎng Zǐlóng (蒋子龍; * 1941) and the author Shén Róng (諶 容; * 1950). Wang Meng is a writer who, after the political opening in the People's Republic of China, was the first to experiment with new forms of storytelling . In his short story " The Eye of the Night " he set himself the goal of imitating the western stream of consciousness , as he explicitly states in his declaration of intent. A particularly important genre in terms of history and political discourse in the PRC is reportage literature . In addition, an extensive folklore and trivial literature was created that met the needs of the broad masses.

The hooligan literature (痞子 文学, pǐzi wénxué ) of the 1980s described the life of bumbling youth cliques who break all the rules on principle. Wang Shuo's works in particular are extremely popular in China, not least because of the author's characteristic nonchalant writing style.

The upscale Chinese poetry, which barely existed during the Maoist phase of the People's Republic, experienced an upswing. Particular mention should be made of the so-called fog poetry (朦胧诗, ménglóngshī ) , which expresses considerable discomfort with social conditions . At first it only circulated in private prints and obscure semi-legal magazines. The first and groundbreaking poem of this style was written in 1979 by Běi Dǎo (北岛; * 1949) and was entitled The Answer (回答, Huídá ). Other well-known representatives of the fog seal are about Gù Chéng (顾城; 1956–1993) and Shū Tíng (舒婷; * 1952).

Modern literature was also repeatedly exposed to considerable state repression in phases, in particular in the course of the “Campaign against Mental Pollution” (清除 精神 污染 运动, qingchu jingshen wuran yundong ) from 1983 or after the crackdown on student protests on Tian'anmen Square in 1989 .

Today's Chinese literature includes not only the works of writers or poets from the People's Republic of China , but also works from Taiwan as well as Chinese works from Singapore , other Southeast Asian countries and overseas. The fact that so far only two Chinese have been awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature ( Gao Xingjian in 2000 and Mo Yan in 2012) shows the still limited exchange between East and West.

Contemporary literature

According to Martin Woesler's assessment, contemporary Chinese literature in 2009, in which China was the guest country at the Frankfurt Book Fair , after a strong wave of commercialization since the 1990s, is presented mainly with the trends of cult literature, vagabond literature, critical surrealism , underground literature, literature of longing with exotic Tibetan and a great wave of nostalgia, women's literature and the literature of emotional distress.

Cult literature

In China there is an unimaginable hype around these young authors from the megacities . They are celebrated like pop stars. Guo Jingming (郭敬明; * 1983), for example, earned 11 million yuan with his title Tears Against the Current (悲伤 逆流 成 河) in 2007 alone; This put him in first place with around 500,000 books sold.

Critical surrealism

His belligerent, older colleague Han Han (韩寒; * 1982) has written Days of Fame (光荣 日), a socially critical, humorous novel in the style of magical realism , which, however, due to its sarcastic undertone and its grotesque elements, tends towards critical surrealism is classified. At the beginning of 2009, with around 500,000 copies sold, he was number 1 on the bestseller lists in China with his new, equally bitingly socially critical novel Sein Land (他 的 国), in which materialism and the cult of the hero are humorously poked fun at. Han Han is also cult and, like Guo Jingming, a total work of art. Among other things, he is a successful racing driver and was named the “second most influential person in the world” by Times Magazine in 2010, primarily because of his blog. The tragic comedy Lenin's Kisses (Ger . 2015) by Yan Lianke (阎连科; * 1958) is one of the surrealist, socially critical novels .

Vagabond literature

In the tradition of Wang Shuo's vagabond literature , Xu Zechen (徐则臣; * 1978) runs through Beijing (跑步 穿过 中关村). This story closely describes the life of Beijing street vendors who deal in forged documents and black copies of DVDs. The novel The Pickpockets (我 叫 刘跃) by Liu Zhenyun (刘震云; * 1958), which was number 1 on the bestseller list in China in 2008 , also fits this realistic spelling .

Underground literature

The most prominent representative of this direction, who describes Shanghai nightlife from the perspective of young female singles, is Mian Mian棉棉, for example with Panda Sex (熊猫). She was the first to write about sex, alcohol, and other drugs and was temporarily banned in China. Together with Wei Hui , author of Shanghai Baby (1999), she was criticized because she was accused of poor literary quality in a nationwide debate.

Longing literature

A large audience in China uses the opportunity to withdraw from everyday materialistic life into an exotic, yet strangely familiar world with longing literature, often in the form of online literature that is particularly widespread in China. This tendency consists of the two areas of Tibetan exoticism, which is often esoterically enraptured even among non-Tibetans in China, and nostalgia. Nostalgic literature looks back at history: for example Yu Dans (于 丹; * 1965) Confucius in the Heart (《论语》 心得), comments on the novel The Three Realms by Yi Zhongtian (易 中天; * 1947), which was ranked 3rd in 2007 The bestseller list was the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty The Qing Prime Minister by Wang Yuewen and War Drums in Beijing by Dou Liang .

Women's literature

With Zhang Ailing (1920–1995), Shanghai developed its own literature, in this case an autobiographical women's literature that describes the inner workings of Shanghai single women. In their successor, authors such as Bi Shumin (毕淑敏) with Frauenboxen (女儿 拳) and Die Psychologin (女 心理 师) write.

Master narrator

In addition to the sometimes very modern currents mentioned, there are also master narrators such as Mo Yan (莫言) with his novel Der Überdruß (生死 疲勞) or Yu Hua's brothers . With his historical novel Die Sandelholzstrafe, Mo Yan belongs more to the current trend in literature on mental distress.

See also

literature

  • Jean-Baptiste Du Halde : Detailed description of the Chinese Empire and the great tartarey , three volumes, Johann Christian Koppe, Rostock 1747–1749; again publishing house Klaus-D. Becker, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-88372-047-0 .
  • Wilhelm Grube: History of Chinese Literature , Amelang, Leipzig 1902.
  • CT Hsia: The classic Chinese novel. A critical introduction , Columbia University Press, New York 1968; German edition (out of print): The classical Chinese novel. An introduction , translated by Eike Schönfeld, Insel Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. 1989.
  • Nagasawa Kikuya: History of Chinese literature and its conceptual basis, after Nagasawa Kikuya, Shina Gakujutsu Bungeishi , translated by P. Eugen Feifel, The Catholic University, Beijing 1945.
  • Wolfgang Kubin (Ed.): History of Chinese Literature , ten volumes, de Gruyter Saur, Berlin and New York 2002–2012, ISBN 978-3-598-24540-4 :
    • Volume 1: Wolfgang Kubin: The Chinese Poetry. From the beginning to the end of the Imperial Era , Saur, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-598-24541-6 .
    • Volume 2: Thomas Zimmer: The Chinese novel of the end of the imperial era , Saur, Munich [2002], ISBN 3-598-24544-0 .
    • Volume 3: Monika Motsch: The Chinese story. From antiquity to modern times , Saur, Munich 2003, ISBN 978-3-598-24542-8 .
    • Volume 4: Marion Eggert: The Classical Chinese Prose. Essay, travel report, sketch, letter, from the Middle Ages to the modern age , Saur, Munich 2003, ISBN 978-3-598-24545-9 .
    • Volume 5: Karl-Heinz Pohl: Aesthetics and literary theory in China, from tradition to modernity , Saur, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-598-24546-6 .
    • Volume 6: Wolfgang Kubin: The traditional Chinese theater. From Mongolian drama to Beijing opera , Saur, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-24543-5 .
    • Volume 7: Wolfgang Kubin: The Chinese Literature in the 20th Century , Saur, Munich 2005, ISBN 978-3-598-24547-3 .
    • Volume 8: Lutz Bieg: Bibliography on Chinese literature in German , de Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-598-24548-0 .
    • Volume 9: Marc Hermann, Brigitte Diep: Biographical Handbook of Chinese Writers: Life and Works , De Gruyter Saur, Berlin and New York 2011, ISBN 978-3-598-24550-3 .
    • Volume 10: Nicola Dischert: Register De Gruyter Saur, Berlin and New York 2012, ISBN 978-3-598-24549-7 .
  • Victor H. Mair (Ed.): The Columbia History of Chinese Literature , Columbia University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-231-10984-9 .
  • Alexander Melzer: The book market in the People's Republic of China as a license market for German book publishers , Iko-Verlag für Interkulturelle Kommunikation, London, Ehling and Frankfurt am Main 2006, ISBN 978-388939-812-3 (Diploma thesis University of Technology, Economics and Culture Leipzig 2005 , 162 pages with graphic representations).
  • Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer: History of Chinese literature. From the beginning to the present , Bern 1990; second edition: CH Beck, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-45337-6 .
  • Idema Wilt and Lloyd Haft: A Guide to Chinese Literature , Ann Arbor (Michigan) 1997, ISBN 0-89264-123-1 .
  • Martin Woesler: Chinese contemporary literature. Authors, works, trends. A snapshot 2007/2008 , European University Press , Bochum 2008, ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4 .
  • Martin Woesler (Ed.): Chinese literature in German translation. China - Guest of Honor at the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009. Symposium volume , European University Press, Bochum 2009, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1 .

Web links

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  1. ^ Martin Woesler: 'Art is Back in Literature' - How a few Works of Contemporary Chinese Mass Literature Turn against the Opportunist Main Stream . In: European Journal of Sinology 1 (2010) 88-97.
  2. ↑ Michel Hockx, in: Cambridge History of Chinese Literature , Vol. 2, 2010.
  3. ↑ With the exception of Japan, there is probably no other country in the world that has translated as much Chinese literature as Germany. The volume makes the often difficult to access, rich translation literature from the beginnings to the present bibliographically accessible.