Chinese-American literature

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The poet John Yau . The multiple literary award winner was born in 1950 in Massachusetts as the son of Chinese immigrants.

The Chinese-American literature is that literature , the Chinese and ethnic Chinese authors in the United States have posted or for the literary market of the United States. Although isolated works can be identified as early as the 19th century, Sino-American literature did not establish itself until the middle of the 20th century. It took off in the last quarter of the 20th century with authors such as Frank Chin , David Henry Hwang , Maxine Hong Kingston and Amy Tan . Of the intercultural literatures within American literature , the Sino-American is one of the youngest.

Often, the works of Chinese authors are also included in Sino-American literature. B. Bai Xianyong (Pai Hsien-yung) - live in the US but write for the book market of the People's Republic of China or Taiwan .

Background and overview

Yung Wing , diplomat and author of the memoir My Life in China and America (1909). Photo from 1910.

The history of the Chinese in the United States began in the mid-19th century with the establishment of Sino-American maritime trade relations and the California gold rush , which turned out to be a powerful pull factor for mass migration from the Guangdong Province, which was particularly hard hit by the Second Opium War and Taiping Uprising proved. The Chinese immigrants were unwelcome in the United States and mostly lived in extremely poor conditions; her literary life is poorly documented. Literary research deals with early Sino-American literature, which has only been written for a short time by mostly Cantonese authors, partly in Chinese script and partly in English . The corpus of text that is available to her has so far been largely limited to the work of authors who belonged to a small cosmopolitan educated elite and were far better off socially than the gold diggers, railway workers, fishermen, seasonal agricultural workers, washers and cooks, the majority of the Chinese immigrants formed. Literary scholars have only occasionally collected poems and songs by anonymous Chinese immigrants.

Until the middle of the 20th century , the living conditions of Chinese immigrants were shaped by the Chinese Exclusion Act , a US federal law introduced in 1882 that regulated Chinese immigration, blocked the reunification of family members and resulted in the Sino-American population being largely women - and was a childless bachelor community in which normal social structures and institutions such as B. Schools or cultural organizations, as they were a matter of course for other immigrant groups, could hardly be established. Among the few authors of Chinese origin who wrote for the American book market during this period are the sisters Edith Maude Eaton alias Sui Sin Far (1865–1914) and Winnifred Eaton (1875–1954) alias Onoto Watanna, who were born as daughters of a Chinese mother , two cross-border commuters who spent their adult lives partly in Canada and partly in the USA.

The entry restrictions for Chinese immigrants were gradually abolished from 1943 to 1965. The demographic imbalance within the Sino-American community was gradually offset by the arrival of women and children, and Chinese Americans established themselves as a normal population group within multi-ethnic American society. On the eve of this development, the first small Sino-American literary scene emerged, which, however, received little attention beyond its own ethnic community. Its protagonists -  Pardee Lowe , Lin Yutang , Helena Kuo , Hazel Ai Chun Lin and Diana Chang  - wrote almost exclusively in English, a practice that has remained binding in Sino-American literature to this day, especially since most of the descendants of immigrants can only read Chinese badly.

The writer Maxine Hong Kingston . Photo from 2006.

With the victory of the Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, a new type of Chinese immigrants to the USA emerged, which has remained predominant to the present day. The United States became an interesting destination for Chinese scholars and intellectuals who did not find adequate career opportunities in communist China; Thousands of highly talented young people who had come to the USA as foreign students also did not return to their homeland after 1949. This structural change in the Sino-American community coincided with the emergence of the American civil rights movement , which led to an improvement in the living conditions, social standing and self-esteem not only of Afro-Americans but of all visible ethnic minorities. In the 1950s, Sino-American authors were first noticed not only within the Sino-American community but far beyond, including Jade Snow Wong , who published her first volume of memoirs in 1950, and Chin Yang Lee , whose novel Flower Drum Song by Rodgers and Hammerstein was adapted into a popular musical in 1958. On the other hand, the development of Sino-American literary life in the 1950s was hampered by the red scare hysteria of the McCarthy era ; many Sino-American writers and intellectuals who welcomed the political developments in China were temporarily forced underground.

Sino-American literature did not develop rapidly until the 1970s. During this time, Frank Chin was the first Sino-American playwright to successfully bring a work to a New York theater. David Henry Hwang and Elizabeth Wong soon followed suit . Another milestone in the development of Asian-American literature is the publication of the anthology Aiiieeeee! Edited by Jeffery Paul Chan , Frank Chin, Lawson Fusao Inada and Shawn Wong . An Anthology of Asian American Writers (1974). Maxine Hong Kingston won the prestigious National Book Critics Circle Award with her memoir The Woman Warrior , published in 1975 . Amy Tan won with her novel The Joy Luck Club (1989) a. a. a National Book Award . Successful recent Chinese-American authors include Gish Jen , Shirley Geok-lin Lim, and Sandra Tsin Loh .

Genera, genres and topics

In keeping with the heterogeneity of its authorship, Sino-American literature shows a considerable range of topics. Chinese-American authors are now represented in all genres that are in demand on the American book market. B. Crime, science fiction, fantasy or homosexual novels. However, some topics are specific to Sino-American literature and keep recurring: the Sino-American experience of migration, the difficulties of assimilation into the culture and society of the Anglo-American majority, the clashes between the (differently assimilated) generations and the struggle for the Preservation and possibly reappropriation of the Chinese cultural heritage.

This literature gives its readers an insight into the constantly changing Sino-American relationship and the conceptual conception that the western world has of China, but it also shows the west how the Chinese perceive it.

Autobiographies and memoirs

One point of departure for Sino-American literature is the autobiographies and memoirs that Chinese immigrants and their descendants wrote and published in the United States. One of the earliest known works in this text corpus is the memory book When I Was a Boy in China by Lee Yan Phou published around 1887 . Yung Wing's report, My Life in China and America, followed in 1909 . Lee and Yung were Yale graduates and two of the first Chinese to graduate from college in the United States.

As early as the 1930s and 1940s, there was an educated and cosmopolitan minority in the Sino-American community who could afford literary work and who helped Sino-American memoir literature to take off. Pardee Lowe , who was born in San Francisco in 1904 and studied at Stanford and Harvard as a young man , is considered to be the first Chinese with American citizenship to publish a book . In his autobiography Father and Glorious Descendant , published in 1937 , Lowe describes the relationship with his beloved and revered father, but also criticizes the discrimination that Chinese Americans were confronted with at the time.

The author Mai-mai Sze (1910–1992). Photographed by Carl van Vechten in 1935.

In 1942, Macau- born journalist Helena Kuo published her autobiography I've Come a Long Way . In it, Kuo reports on the difficulties that an educated and modern woman pursuing a career has to face both in China and in Western countries. Mai-mai Sze , whose autobiography Echo of a Cry was published in 1945, grew up as the daughter of a Chinese ambassador in Great Britain and the USA, studied at Wellesley College and appeared as a versatile artist. Her The Tao of Painting, is a representation of Chinese painting with her translation of the painting manual of the mustard seed garden.Other examples of early Chinese-American autobiographies are the works of UC Berkeley graduate Monlin Chiang ( Tides from the West , 1947) and the doctor Buwei Yang Chao ( Autobiography of a Chinese Woman , 1948).

In 1950 Jade Snow Wong's successful book Fifth Chinese Daughter was published , which was the first to portray a youth in the poor Sino-American artisan milieu. Wong was the daughter of the owner of a small sewing shop with many children, but was able to study as a young woman and eventually became an art potter. Fifth Chinese Daughter has won several literary awards and has been translated into many languages. It was published in German in 1954 under the title A Chinese girl in Frisco . In 1975, Wong released the serial no Chinese Stranger .

Daughter of Confucius (1952) by Su-ling Wong and Earl Herbert Cressy and Sold for Silver (1958) by Janet Lim appeared in the 1950s . The autobiography of Maxine Hong Kingston , The Woman Warrior: Memoirs of a Girlhood Among Ghosts , a complex, feminist-inspired portrait of Chinese people who lived in the United States at the time of the founding of the People's Republic of China, received great attention . The book combines autobiography with ancient Chinese folk tales and won a National Book Critics Circle Award , but it also sparked a debate about the authenticity of the Chinese cultural heritage in Kingston's work.

In 1984, Katherine Wei published her memoirs, Second Daughter: Growing Up in China, 1930-1949 . From 1986 to 1991 a whole series of autobiographies was published, the authors of which settled with the cultural revolution and which can be classified in the broader sense of “ scar literature ”: Life and Death in Shanghai (1986) by Nien Cheng , Legacies (1990) by Bette Bao Lord , Red Azalea ( Red Azalea , 1991) by Anchee min and A Single Tear (1994) by Wu Ningkun and Li Yikai.

More recent works include The Winged Seed (1995) by Li-Young Lee , Among the White Moon Faces (1996) by Shirley Geok-lin Lim, The Accidental Asian (1998) by Eric Liu , Fallende Blätter (1999, Falling Leaves ) by Adeline Yen Mah , A Woman Soldier's Story (2001) by Xie Bingying , The Chopsticks-Fork Principle (2002) by Cathy Bao Bean , Yeh Yeh's House (2004) by Evelina Chao , Chasing Hepburn (2004) by Gus Lee , Feather in the Storm (2006) by Emily Wu , The Eighth Promise (2007) by William Poy Lee and Return to the Middle Kingdom (2008) by Yuan-tsung Chen . Even Amy Chua's "educational book" Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother (2011) may be the autobiographical genre are allocated.

Historical novels

Many works by Chinese-American writers have the history of China as their background. In the historical novels whose action in the empire falls, it is mostly about women's lives, such as the favorite wife of His Excellency (English. The Fabulous Concubine , 1956) of Hsin-hai Chang , House of Orchids (1960) by Hazel Lin, The Red Peony (1961) by Lin Yutang, in the American Book Award- nominated family saga Spring Moon (1981) by Bette Bao Lord, in Empire of Heaven (1990) by Linda Ching Sledge , in The Moon Pearl (2001) by Ruthanne Lum McCunn , in the two novels by Anchee Min about the Dowager Empress Cixi -  The Empress on the Dragon Throne ( Empress Orchid , 2004) and The Last Empress ( The Last Empress , 2007) - as well as in two books by Lisa See : Der Seidenfächer ( Engl. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan , 2005) and Eine Himmlische Liebe ( Peony in Love , 2007). An exception is z. B. Chin Yang Lee's novel The Second Son of Heaven , centered around the rebel leader Hung Hsiu-ch'üan .

One of the most ambitious Sino-American historical novels is Freundessvur ( Middle Heart , 1996) by Bette Bao Lord, a book whose plot begins in the 1930s, then spans the entire 20th century and first with the Tian'anmen uprising 1989 ends.

The writer and inventor Lin Yutang (1895–1976). Photographed by Carl Van Vechten in 1939.

In his historical novel Moment in Peking , published in 1939, Lin Yutang also covers a large narrative period. Lin describes the events that shaped China in the first third of the 20th century: the Boxer Rebellion , the Xinhai Revolution , the General Wars , the rise of the Kuomintang and the Communists, and the origins of the Second Sino-Japanese War . An early apologist for Chinese communism was Hsi Tseng Tsiang (HT Tsiang), who was active in the literary scene in Greenwich Village and who wrote many poems (some of which were set to music by Ruth Crawford Seeger in 1932 ) and the novels Red China (1931), The Hanging on Union Square (1931) and And China Has Hands (1937).

Another important topic in the Sino-American historical novel is the Japanese occupation (1937–1945). It is about this traumatic time for contemporaries. a. in A Leaf in the Storm (1942) by Lin Yutang, Westward to Chungking (1944) by Helena Kuo, The Frontiers of Love (1956) by Diana Chang, and more recently in Breaking the Tongue (2004) by Vyvyane Loh . The novella Lust, Caution about a young Chinese woman who is supposed to spy on a collaborator in the Japanese army, published in 1979 by Zhang Ailing (Eileen Zhang) , became famous as a template for Ang Lee's feature film Danger and Desire (2007).

There are hardly any historical novels in Sino-American literature that focus on, or even celebrate, the founding and early days of the People's Republic of China ; Naturally, the people who left the People's Republic of China for the United States were more likely to be found dissidents than supporters of the CCP. Ha Jin alias Jīn Xuěfēi, who was a soldier in the People's Liberation Army as a young man , but later studied in the USA, from where he never returned after the Tian'anmen massacre (1989), has a number of award-winning prose works on communist China and especially published the life in the People's Liberation Army, including the short story book Ocean of Words (1996) and the novels In the Pond (1998) and War Trash (2004). His novel Waiting , published in 1999, about a Chinese army doctor whose sense of duty forces him to forego the love of his life, won a. a. a National Book Award .

The time of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), in which artists and intellectuals were systematically persecuted as part of the class struggle against the presumed internal enemy , takes up a large part of the Chinese-American historical novel. This is the topic that is at stake. a. in Foreign Devil (1996, Eng. Foreign Devil ) by Wang Ping , in Ha Jin's story collection Under the Red Flag (1997) and in two novels by Anchee Min: Madame Mao (2001, Becoming Madame Mao ) and Wild Ginger (2002, Wild Ginger ). Yiyun Li tells a dissident story from the late 1960s in her novel The Mortals (2009, Vagrants ) about a young woman who was a fanatical Red Guard during the Cultural Revolution but then distanced herself from communism. The plot of Anchee Min's debut novel Land of My Heart (1995, Katherine ) is also set in the time immediately after the Cultural Revolution . This story is about the cultural confusion that arises in a language school in Shanghai when an American guest teacher starts working there.

Ha Jin has written one ( The Crazed , 2002) and Alexander Kuo two novels about the Tian'anmen uprising (1989) : Chinese Opera (2001) and Panda Diaries (2006). Life in contemporary China is the focus of Kuos' collection of stories Lipstick and Other Stories , which won an American Book Award , as well as the novels Unwalled City (2001) by Xu Xi and February Flowers (2007) by Fan Wu .

The Sino-American Experience

The second major topic in Sino-American literature is the migration experience or the Sino-American cultural contrasts experienced by migrants. Autobiographical and novel literature are often immediately adjacent here. Lisa See told the story of her family, who immigrated from China to California in 1867, in an epic, but non-fictional manner ( Auf dem golden Berg / On Gold Mountain , 1995). Lani Ah Tye Farkas undertook a similar reconstruction in his book Bury My Bones in America (1998); the story of his family begins in the California gold rush in 1852 and continues until 1996. Lan Samantha Chang has published a novel on the same subject; With her family saga Inheritance (2004), she tells an emigration story that begins in China in the 1910s and ends seventy years later in the USA.

stories

The thematic diversity within migration literature is considerable. Give an impression of the range z. As the short stories - and collections of short stories , which many Chinese-American writers began their publication career as Mrs. Spring Fragrance (1912) by Edith Maude Eaton aka Sui Sin Far, The Chinaman Pacific and Frisco RR Co. (1988) by Frank Chin, Pangs of Love (1991, New York Times Notable Book ) by David Wong Louie , American Visa (1994) by Wang Ping, Hunger: A Novella and Stories (1998) by Lan Samantha Chang, Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories ( 2000; American Book Award) by Russell Leong , Troublemaker and Other Saints (2001) by Christina Chiu , A Thousand Years of Good Prayers (2005; cover story filmed as Mr. Shi and the song of the cicadas , 2007) by Yiyun Li, White Jade & Other Stories (2008) by Alexander Kuo and A Good Fall (2009) by Ha Jin.

Migrant fates

Lin Yutang's novel The Flight of the Innocents (1966) is one of the few works in which leaving China itself is the focus . Much more frequently, Sino-American literature tells of the difficulties of entering the United States, the prejudice and discrimination that the Chinese have faced and are exposed to in the United States, and the challenge of reconciling Chinese ideals and traditions with the dominant culture of the WASPs , and - again and again very central - on the question of the cultural and personal identity of Chinese immigrants and their descendants.

Although Chinese immigration began in California , the Sino-American literary scene first formed on the east coast. New York City had been the literary center of the country since the 19th century . The first great Chinese immigrant novels are set in New York's Chinatown . Lin Yutang's novel Chinatown Family (1948), for example, tells of a Chinese working class family who tried to live their lives in xenophobic New York in the 1930s and 1940s. In his novel Eat a Bowl of Tea (1961), Louis Chu describes the fate of a young Chinese couple who settled in New York at a time when the Chinese community was still almost a bachelor party. Judith Rascoe and Wayne Wang adapted the book as a feature film in 1989 (A cup of tea for love) . Eat a Bowl of Tea can be compared to Evelina Chaos' lesser-known novel Gates of Grace (1987), which is also about the experiences a young Chinese couple had in New York shortly after the People's Republic of China was founded. The novel Honor and Duty (1994) by Gus Lee offers a slightly different perspective about an American of Chinese origin who goes to the military academy in West Point on the eve of the Vietnam War and, as an Asian, encounters all sorts of unexpected discrimination. The hero of Ed Lin's novel Waylaid (2002) is a twelve-year-old whose parents, immigrants from Taiwan, run a shabby motel in a suburb of New Jersey .

In California, where mass Chinese immigration began in 1848, literature reflecting this experience emerged late. In Shanghai, the merchant and author Ku Shehui, who had returned from California, had already published a novel in 1905 about the suffering of Chinese immigrants during the time of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Monfoon Leong was the first author to write about Chinese in California for American readers in 1949. The hero of his story New Year for Fong Wing is a Chinese worker in San Francisco who is desperate for his life after all of his three sons die as American soldiers in two world wars. Novels about the fate of Chinese immigrants in California did not appear until the 1990s. The first of these, China Boy (1991) by Gus Lee , is about a young Chinese American in the San Francisco ghetto who is experiencing the conflict between Chinese tradition and American modernity typical of his generation, but who is not welcome in either of these worlds. The story gains a particularly bitter note from the fact that the hero is an adolescent who, like all his peers, is on the lookout for his personal identity. Despite similar conflicts, the heroine in Jean Yee Long's novel Luxuriantly Literate (2003) is doing better because she finds something in California that would not have been available to her as a girl in China in the 1920s: higher education. The two young Chinese women, about whom Lisa See tells in her novel Shanghai Girls (2009), come to America because their families are in financial difficulties and have found grooms for them in Los Angeles .

Fae Myenne Ng's Bone (1993) also deals with the conflict between cultures . The title refers to the remains of a Chinese immigrant who are to be transferred to China after his death - a company that ultimately fails because the family is torn apart. Both here and in Steer Toward Rock (2008), Ng also writes about the illegal routes that the Chinese had to tread during the time of the Chinese Exclusion Act in order to enter the United States, especially about so-called "paper fathers". H. Kinship relationships faked between applicants and naturalized immigrants to simulate family reunification.

Ha Jin tells a story from the recent past in his novel A Free Life (2007). It is also about the challenges of settling in, the main characters - a young married couple - are students who actually wanted to return to China after completing their training, but are surprised in the USA by the news about the Tian'anmen massacre and by this At this point in time, they feel that both themselves and their country of origin have changed so much that they decide to stay. Sandra Tsing Loh gives a glimpse into the lifestyle of modern Chinese-Americans in the suburbs of Los Angeles in her report A Year in Van Nuys , published in 2001 .

The works of Eleanor Wong Telemaque , who grew up in a small town in Minnesota where there were hardly any Chinese besides her family , are a bit out of line . The focus of her novel It's Crazy to Stay Chinese in Minnesota (1978) is a young Chinese American who helps out in her parents' family restaurant and, as a small-town outsider, has little hope of leaving this limited world at some point. Her most recent book, The Sammy Wong Files: Confessions of a Chinese American Terrorist (2007), which, among other things, deals with the experiences of Chinese Americans during the communist hunt in the McCarthy era , also has autobiographical elements . Sandra Tsing Loh, on the other hand, provides a glimpse into the lifestyle of modern Chinese-Americans in the suburbs of Los Angeles in her report A Year in Van Nuys , published in 2001 .

Chinese tradition and American modernity

Occasionally - for example in The Eavesdropper (1959) by Lin Tai-yi  - the Sino-American novel deals with the conflict among immigrants, who feel as close to China as they do to their adopted country, the USA, but who are repeatedly forced to accept only their loyalty to choose one of these two countries. A much more frequently discussed topic is how Chinese Americans deal with the contrast between Chinese tradition and WASP culture. In his story Son Number One (1975) , published posthumously, Monfoon Leong tells of a young Chinese American who, as the firstborn son, is supposed to take over his father's role after the death of his father, but who would rather care for his own future and go to school. The focus of the novel Typical American (1991) by Gish Jen is a young man who comes to the USA as a student and initially resolves never to abandon the ethical attitude with which he grew up in China. To the same extent that he succumbs to the fascination of the American Dream and hopes to achieve prosperity, however, he sacrifices these values ​​and becomes as “typically American” as it once corresponded to his worst enemy image.

Generational conflicts

A classic conflict material in Sino-American families is the different levels of cultural adaptation of the generations. Marilyn Chin treats this topic as an example in her novel Revenge of the Mooncake Vixen (2009) about two young Chinese American women, sisters who deliver food for their grandmother's family restaurant, a traditional Chinese matriarch, and who gradually get in as they grow up transforming modern western women. The Flower Drum Song (1957), a novel by CY Lee that Rodgers and Hammerstein adapted as a musical the year after its publication , is one of the earliest literary works in which the Sino-American generation conflict was dealt with . The material became internationally known through Henry Koster's film adaptation with James Shigeta , Miyoshi Umeki and Nancy Kwan ( almond eyes and lotus blossoms , 1961). It is about young Chinese Americans who have to choose between arranged marriages and modern partner choice and who do not always agree with their still traditionally oriented parents. In her highly acclaimed novel Crossings (1968), Stella Yang Copley, who published her work under the name Chuang Hua , goes one step further and writes about how young Chinese Americans of their time find their love partners outside of their own minority community. Gish Jen has repeatedly described the appeal of multiculturalism for young Chinese Americans, for example in The Love Wife (2004). The experience-hungry heroine in her novel Mona in the Promised Land (1996) is drawn to Judaism , whereupon her confused mother wonders if Mona would like to be black next . In David Wong Louie's novel The Barbarians are Coming (2000), a Chinese immigrant who sees his son as a future doctor is desperate because he would rather attend a cooking school; What appears to the father as the choice of a classic Chinese lower-class occupation is for the son a Western lifestyle commitment: he is by no means drawn into the kitchen of a Chinese fast-food restaurant, but into haute cuisine . Sandra Tsing Loh, who was born in California as the daughter of a Chinese father and a German mother, offers a humorous treatment of the generational contrast in her book Aliens in America (1997), the monologue of an irritated daughter who cannot get rid of the feeling that her parents are from someone else Planets are coming.

Identity question

The Chinese immigrants and their descendants repeatedly raise the question of who they are in their literary works. One of the earliest Chinese-American authors, Hazel Ai Chun Lin alias Hazel Lin, dealt with this topic, for example in her autobiographical novel The Physicians (1951) about a young woman, granddaughter of a famous Beijing doctor, who was in the United States against studied western medicine for her grandfather's will. The protagonist of her second novel, The Moon Vow (1958), is a successful Beijing doctor who loves women. The portrayal of homosexuality was still quite unusual in American literature at the time.

The question of identity is of particular concern to the younger generations born in the USA who have already been assimilated. For example, African Americans are still perceived as strangers. The hero in Shawn Wong's debut novel Homebase (1979) is a Chinese-American youth whose ancestors have lived in California since the time of the gold rush and whose interest in his origins and identity is awakened when he is an orphan at the age of 15.

A major role in Sino-American literature is dealing with the cultural stereotypes that shape the perception of the Chinese in the West. In his second novel, American Knees (1995), Wong questioned the stereotype of the asexual East Asian man and, for the first time in American literature, created a Sino-American hero with stupefying sex appeal ; the book was adapted as a feature film in 2006 ( Americanese , director: Eric Byler , with Chris Tashima ). Western Asian stereotypes are also at the center of Frank Chin's novel Gunga Din Highway (1994) about a Sino-American actor who dreams of playing big roles in Hollywood, but who is only allowed to impersonate shabby little Asian characters. Incidentally, Gus Lee published the first crime novel in which a Chinese American investigates in 2000 (No Physical Evidence) ; Ed Lin followed in 2007 with This is a Bust .

Maxine Hong Kingston's novel Tripmaster Monkey (1989) is about a writer, a fifth-generation Chinese Californian who is unable to identify with either his Chinese heritage or the stereotyped American mainstream culture. Frank Chin's novel Donald Duk , published in 1991, is about an 11-year-old boy who grew up in San Francisco's Chinatown. Donald finds his Chinese origins an embarrassing flaw and tries in vain to shake it off, but in the course of the plot learns to accept who he is. The identity of the heroine in the novel Monkey King (1997) by Patricia Chao is even more critical ; it is about a young Chinese American woman whose life is seemingly perfect, but in fact harbors memories of hushed up sexual abuse. Again and again Gish Jen asks the question of identity, for example in her story Who's Irish? (2000), in which an aging Chinese immigrant reports on her assimilated daughter who married into an Irish-American family.

Occasionally - for example in Alvin Lu's debut novel The Hell Screens (2000) and in The Spirit of Madame Chen (2005, Saving Fish From Drowning ) by Amy Tan - the question of identity also arises in stories about Chinese Americans China travel to a country to which they have long since lost touch.

Jean Kwok's autobiographical debut novel Girl in Translation was only published in 2010. It tells of the double life of a young migrant who is a gifted student during the day and in the evening to support her family but has to work in a sweat shop. The book made the New York Times bestseller list and has been translated into many other languages.

Mother-daughter relationships

The novelist Amy Tan .

Due to the varying degrees of assimilation between generations, relationships between mothers and daughters in the Sino-American community are often particularly tense. However, these mothers are an important link to the Chinese tradition, which has a decisive influence on the identity of the daughters. The complicated relationships between Sino-American mothers and daughters are a central theme in Amy Tan's work . In her debut novel, Daughters of Heaven ( The Joy Luck Club , 1989), the main staff is made up of three mothers and their four daughters. Wayne Wang adapted the book as a feature film ( Daughters of Heaven , 1993), and a stage version by Susan Kim premiered in 1999 at New York's Pan Asian Repertory Theater. In their thematically closely related novels The woman of the fire god (engl. The Kitchen God's Wife , 1991) and the ink drawing ( The Bonesetter's Daughter , 2001) describes Tan exploring trips that young Chinese Americans in the trove of memories of her - until then perceived as difficult - Mothers undertake. On the basis of a libretto by Amy Tan and Michael Korie, Stewart Wallace adapted The Ink Drawing as an opera and premiered in 2008 at the San Francisco Opera . In Tans 1998 the released and novel The Hundred hidden meaning (Engl. The Hundred Secret Senses ), however, is not a mother-daughter relationship, but the relationship of two half-sisters in the foreground, one of which was born in the United States and completely assimilated, while the other arrives from China and teaches the younger one all sorts of things about her cultural roots that she had never wanted to know about until then.

Fan Wu's novel Beautiful as Yesterday (2009) is also about the tensions between two sisters who are assimilated to different degrees.

More genres and themes

Science fiction writer Ted Chiang .

The Sino-American cultural experience is by no means always in the foreground. In many of Diana Chang's novels, the main characters are all of European descent, although these are mostly about identity ( A Woman of Thirty , 1959; A Passion for Life , 1961; The Only Game in Town , 1963; Eye to Eye , 1974 ; A Perfect Love , 1978). Chinese-American authors today are at home in every imaginable literary genre. So Kitty Tsui since the 1980s with lesbian erotica emerged (z. B. Breathless , 1996). Ted Chiang , who is a computer scientist by profession, has published a number of science fiction stories, several of which - e. B. Tower of Babylon (1990) - have received literary prizes. Tony Chius' novel Positive Match , published in 1998 , is attributed to both science fiction and the genre of medical thriller ; there are no main Chinese characters in this story either.

Patricia Chao's second novel Mambo Peligroso (2005), which deals with the Latin American dance scene in New York , shows that the literature of Chinese-American authors can deal with very different topics than the Chinese-American experience . The journalist Kenneth Eng , controversial for his racism , published a fantasy novel, Dragons , in 2005, and Eugie Foster has had a volume of vampire stories, Inspirations End, since the same year .

drama

David Henry Hwang.

Chinese-American theaters and drama ensembles existed as early as the 1960s. B. the East West Players, founded in Los Angeles in 1965 . Frank Chin , who premiered his first work The Chickencoop Chinaman in 1971, is considered a pioneer of Sino-American drama . His second work, The Year of the Dragon , premiered in 1974 at the American Place Theater in New York City, an off-Broadway stage co-founded by Tennessee Williams , which enabled the play to gain attention well beyond the Sino-American scene .

In 1973 the Asian American Theater Company was founded in San Francisco , and in 1977 Tisa Chang founded the Pan Asian Repertory Theater in New York City , which specializes in modern Sino-American dramas and English translations of Asian masterpieces.

In 1980 David Henry Hwang performed his debut work FOB - Fresh off the Boat . The play is about the contradictions and conflicts between established Chinese Americans and newly arrived migrants, and was awarded an Obie Award . Hwang wrote many other stage pieces, including the drama M. Butterfly (1990), for which he received a Tony Award and which David Cronenberg processed into a film of the same name in 1993 with Jeremy Irons and John Lone . In 2002 Hwang also contributed a new libretto for the musical Flower Drum Song .

The most important woman among the Sino-American playwrights is Elizabeth Wong , who has written award-winning plays such as Letters to a Student Revolutionary (1991) and China Doll (1995). Other prominent Chinese-American playwrights are Alexander Woo ( Forbidden City Blues , 2002) and Dan Kwong ( Be Like Water , 2008). Together with composer Doug Lackey , CY Lee (author of the novel Flower Drum Song ) wrote the musical The Fan Tan King , which premiered in 2006 at the Pan Asian Repertory Theater.

Poetry

The poet Arthur Sze.

The poetry has a millennia-old tradition in China and therefore plays in the Sino-American literature a significant role. However, the English language enforces other forms of expression than the tonal and extremely homophonic Chinese languages ​​and thus requires the authors to creatively adapt. The first Chinese and Chinese-born authors to publish books of poetry in the USA include Chiang Yee ( The Silent Traveller's Hong Kong Zhuzhi Poems , 1972), Arthur Sze ( The Willow Wind , 1972), Nellie Wong ( Dreams in Harrison Railroad Park , 1977) and Fay Chiang ( In the City of Contradictions , 1979).

One of the most successful Chinese-American poets of recent times is Shirley Geok-lin Lim , who was born to a Chinese father in Malaysia and came to the USA in 1969 as a doctoral student, where, in addition to her memoirs ( Among the White Moon Faces , 1996) published several volumes of poetry, including the Crossing the Peninsula collection (1980), for which she was awarded the Commonwealth Poetry Prize . In the 1980s, Alan Chong Lau ( Songs for Jadina , 1980), Diana Chang ( The Horizon is Definitely Speaking , 1982) and Mei-mei Berssenbrugge ( The Heat Bird , 1983) , who later won two American Book Awards , made their debut with volumes of poetry. , Cathy Song ( Picture Bride , 1983), married to the artist Richard Tuttle , the poet and art critic John Yau published Corpse and Mirror in 1983, his first volume of poetry Crossing Canal Steer was published in 1976, Li-Young Lee ( Rose , 1986), Merle Woo ( Yellow Woman Speaks , 1986), Marilyn Chin ( Dwarf Bamboo , 1987), Wing Tek Lum ( Expounding the Doubtful Points , 1987), Ha Jin ( Between Silences , 1990) and Li-Young Lee ( The City in Which I Love You , 1990). Sino-American authors who have recently appeared with volumes of poetry include Russell Leong ( The Country of Dreams and Dust , 1993), Wang Ping ( Of Flesh & Spirit , 1998), Stephen Liu ( My Father's Martial Art , 1999) and Tina Chang ( Half-Lit Houses , 2004). Yibing Huang alias Mai Mang is one of the few Sino-American poets who write in both languages ( Turtle , 2005).

Children's and young people's literature

One of the first Chinese-American children's book authors was Chih-Yi Cha , who published the picture book Good Luck Horse illustrated by Plato Chan in 1943 , which was honored with a Caldecott Honor in 1944 . The story is about a lonely boy in ancient China who makes a tiny horse out of paper that is brought to life through magic. Ruthanne Lum McCunn and the illustrator You-shan Tang published their picture book Pie-Biter in 1983 about a Chinese immigrant who was employed in building American railways in the 19th century. Amy Tan wrote the picture books The Moon Lady (1992) and Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat (1994); the stories of the cat Sagwa, which were set in China during the imperial era, reached their largest audiences through an animated film series broadcast by PBS in 2001-2002 . Gretchen Schields illustrated both books.

Laurence Yep, Lisa Yee and Grace Lin are among the most important Chinese-American children's book authors. Laurence Yep , who received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Award in 2005 for his oeuvre , is best known for the Golden Mountain Chronicles , a 9-volume series of stories that focuses on the fate of a Chinese family from the mid-19th century California emigrated; Yep adapted the band Dragonwings as a play for the Berkeley Repertory Theater in 1991 . Lisa Yee's most successful work is a small trilogy that describes the experiences of three 11-year-olds, including two of Chinese descent, during a summer in California. The three volumes -  Millicent Min, Girl Genius (2003), Stanford Wong Flunks Big-Time (2005), So Totally Emily Ebers (2007) - offer the perspective of one of the children. At the heart of Grace Lin's books The Year of the Dog (2005) and The Year of the Rat (2007) the experiences of a Taiwanese-American girl who moves back between the two cultures and feels torn stand. Lin received a Newbery Honor for her book Where the Mountain Meets the Moon , which was published in 2009 and is based on a traditional Chinese folklore . Other well-known Chinese-American children's books are Sing to the Dawn (1975) by Minfong Ho , In the Year of the Bear and Jackie Robinson (1984) by Bette Bao Lord and the fantasy novel Swordbird (2008) by Nancy Yi Fan, who was born in 1993 . In his debut novel The Pacific Between (2006), addressed to young people , Raymond K. Wong , who came to the USA from Hong Kong at the age of eighteen , freely recounts his own story.

Chinese literature by authors of European descent

In the broadest sense, the term “Chinese-American literature” also includes works by American authors who are not of Chinese origin and who are closely connected to China and have drawn from this familiarity as a writer. This applies e.g. B. for the Nobel laureate in literature Pearl S. Buck , who spent several decades of her life in China and spoke about it in her work. Anchee Min dedicated the novel Pearl of China (2010) to Buck .

Research facilities

Just like other American “hyphenated literatures” (e.g. African-American or Jewish-American literature ), Sino-American literature is usually not examined in the context of American studies , but in a special philology. For historical reasons - these philologies emerged in the 1960s in response to a growing interest in non-Western cultures - scholarly engagement with this literature falls into Asian American Studies rather than a special subject in Chinese American Studies . There are currently significant study and research programs in Sino-American literature. a. at Creighton University , Omaha and in the Asian American Studies programs at San José State University , the University of California, Berkeley , the University of California, Santa Barbara , New York University , the University of Wisconsin – Madison and the University of Illinois . Well-known experts are King-Kok Cheung, Jinqi Ling, Marjorie Lee (all three University of California, Los Angeles ), Marlon K. Hom ( San Francisco State University ), Sau-ling Cynthia Wong, Elaine H. Kim and Ling-Chi Wang (all three University of California, Berkeley). The Asian American Studies Center at the University of California, Los Angeles has published the leading journal Amerasia Journal since 1971 .

Sino-American literature is also researched and studied at the major universities in the People's Republic of China and in Taiwan. B. at the Chinese American Literature Research Center at Peking University, founded in 2003 . Zhang Ziqing , a literary scholar at Nanjing University , is one of the founders of Chinese American Studies . Other experts include Wu Bing (Peking University), Yingguo Xu ( Nankai University ), Wang Guang-lin (Shanghai Institute of Foreign Trade), Shan Te-Hsing, Ho Wen-ching, Lee Yucheng (all three Academia Sinica ) and Pin-chia Feng ( National Chiao Tung University ).

See also

literature

  • Leslie Bow: Betrayal and Other Acts of Subversion: Feminism, Sexual Politics, Asian American Women's Literature , Princeton University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-691-07093-8
  • Shan Qiang He: Chinese-American Literature ; in: Alpana Sharma Knippling (Ed.): New Immigrant Literatures in the United States: A Sourcebook to Our Multicultural Literary Heritage . Greenwood Publishing Group 1996, ISBN 978-0-313-28968-2 , pp. 43-62 ( restricted online version in Google Book Search - USA )
  • Elaine Kim: Asian American Literature: An Introduction to the Writings and Their Social Context , Temple University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-87722-352-1
  • Shirley Lim, Amy Ling (Eds.): Reading the Literatures of Asian America , Temple University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-87722-936-8
  • Sau-ling Cynthia Wong: Reading Asian American Literature , Princeton University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-691-01541-4
  • Xiao-huang Yin: Chinese American Literature since the 1850s , University of Illinois Press, 2000, ISBN 0-252-02524-5 ( limited online version in Google Book Search - USA )

Notes and individual references

  1. ↑ Strictly speaking, the authors discussed in this article come from a variety of East Asian ethnicities and cultures. Yung Wing, for example, came from Guangdong and spoke Cantonese , like the majority of the Chinese who came to the United States before the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed . The majority of the younger authors come from families in which Mandarin was spoken. Their ancestors come from all parts of mainland China , but rarely from the Republic of China (Taiwan) . Despite this ethnic and cultural heterogeneity, these authors identify themselves today as "Chinese-American", often even as "Asian-American". Most of the teaching and research facilities at American universities where Chinese-American literature is studied are called “ Asian American Studies ” and cover not only the Chinese but also all other East and Southeast Asian cultures of origin.
  2. ^ A b c d e f Russell C. Leong: Paths of Stone, Rivers of Ink: The Sineo-American World through Its Writers
  3. ↑ For example, Marlon K. Hom: Jinshan Geiji, Songs of Gold Mountain , San Francisco 1911 and 1915 (reprinted under the title Songs of Gold Mountain: Cantonese Rhymes from San Francisco Chinatown , University of California Press, 1992, ISBN 0-520- 08104-8 ); Kim Mark Lai, Genny Lim, Judy Yung (Eds.): Island: Poetry and History of Chinese Immegrants on Angel Island 1910–1940 , University of Washington Press, 1999, ISBN 0-295-97109-6
  4. ↑ Onoto Watanna: A Japanese Nightingale , 1902 ( limited online version in Google Book Search - USA )
  5. ↑ 51.7 percent of Sino-Americans over the age of 25 have a college degree today, but only 27 percent of the total adult population in the United States ( A Portrait of Chinese America ( Memento des original from November 22, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / news.newamericamedia.org
  6. ↑ Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Biobliographical Critical Sourcebook , p. 57 ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  7. ^ Guiyou Huang: Asian American Literary Studies , Columbia University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7486-2013-5
  8. ↑ Online version in the Google Book Search USA
  9. ↑ Online version in the Google Book Search USA
  10. ^ Judy Yung, Gordon H. Chang, H. Mark Lai: Chinese American voices: From the Gold Rush to the Present , p. 165 ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  11. ^ Jean Amato: Helena Kuo (1911–) ; in: Emmanuel Sampath Nelson: Asian American novelists: a bio-bibliographical critical sourcebook , p. 172ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA ); Helena Kuo Kingman, 86, Writer on China New York Times, June 13, 1999
  12. ↑ May May Sze . Beincke.library.yale.edu Retrieved June 18, 2010.
  13. ↑ about Monlin Chiang: Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook , p. 49ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA ); about Buwei Yang Chao: Vanessa Künnemann, Ruth Mayer: Trans-Pacific Interactions: The United States and China, 1880–1950 , p. 116 ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  14. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  15. ^ Hyung-chan Kim: Distinguished Asian Americans: A Biographical Dictionary , p. 355 ( restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA ); Jade Snow Wong
  16. ↑ Daughter of Confucius: Wendy Ho: In Her Mother's House: The Politics of Asian American Mother-Daughter Writing , p. 42 ( limited online version in Google Book Search USA ); Sold for Silver: limited online version in Google Book Search - USA ; Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Biobliographical Critical Sourcebook , p. 209ff ( restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  17. ↑ Sau-ling Cynthia Wong: Maxine Hong Kingston's The Woman Warrior: A Casebook ( limited online version in Google Book Search - USA )
  18. ↑ Asian-American Literary “Authenticity” . Dartmouth.edu. April 15, 1994. Retrieved June 18, 2010.
  19. ↑ Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Biobliographical Critical Sourcebook , p. 383ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  20. ^ Life and Death in Shanghai: Life and Death in Shanghai Times, February 5, 2007; Legacies: Bette Bao Lord . Gale.cengage.com. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; A Single Tear: 22 Years as a Class Enemy New York Times, Feb. 28, 1993
  21. ^ The Winged Seed: The Brothers Judd: The Winged Seed: A Remembrance (1995) . Brothersjudd.com. December 20, 1999. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Li-Young Lee ; Among the White Moon Faces: Florence Howe, Jean Casella: Almost Touching the Skies: Women's Coming of Age Stories , p. 125 ( limited online version in Google Book Search - USA ); The Accidental Asian: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Falling Leaves: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Falling leaves ; A Woman Soldier's Story: limited online version in Google Book Search - USA ; "A Woman Soldier's Own Story" by Xie Bingying ; Cathy Bao Bean Official Website; Yeh Yeh's House: overview in Google Book Search - USA ; Long-Delayed Journey to Yeh Yeh's House Becomes Dramatic Homecoming for Chinese-American Writer Review; Wentong Ma: Evelina Chao , in: Emmanuel Sampath Nelson (ed.): Asian American novelists: a bio-bibliographical critical sourcebook , p. 44ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA ); Chasing Hepburn: Overview in the Google Book Search USA ; Chasing Hepburn ; Feather in the Storm: Overview in the Google Book Search USA ; Feather in the storm ; The Eighth Promise ( Memento November 27, 2010 on the Internet Archive ); Return to the Middle Kingdom : limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Return to the Middle Kingdom by Yuan-Tsung Chen
  22. ^ The Fabulous Concubine: The 21st Century in China . Dartmouth.edu. May 13, 2003. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Spring Moon: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Books of the Times Review, New York Times, December 2, 1981; The Moon Pearl: limited online version in Google Book Search - USA ; McCunn, Ruth Anne Lum. The moon pearl ( Memento from July 11, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) Review; Ruthanne Lum McCunn Official Website
  23. ↑ Lin Yutang . Umass.edu. Archived from the original on August 9, 2013. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Wystan Hugh Auden: The Complete Works of WH Auden: Prose, 1939–1948 , p. 35 ( restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  24. ↑ http://www.nyslittree.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/DB.PersonDetail/PersonPK/1428.cfm Person Detail: HT Tsiang; Barry Moreno: Ellis Island's Famous Immigrants, p. 29 ( restricted online version in Google Book Search - USA )
  25. ^ A Leaf in the Storm: "A Leaf in the Storm" by Lin Yutang . Sebastianhayes.co.uk. August 3, 2009. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Westward to Chungking: Emmanuel Sampath Nelson: Asian American novelists: a bio-bibliographical critical sourcebook , p. 173 ( online version in the Google Book Search USA ); The Frontiers of Love:; Breaking the Tongue:; Vyvyane Loh Official Website
  26. ↑ Ha Jin short biography
  27. ↑ Wang Ping Official Website
  28. ↑ Yiyun Li Official Website; Crimes of Innocence New York Times, March 6, 2009
  29. ^ Lipstick and Other Stories: Lipstick and Other Stories . Asia2000.com.hk. Archived from the original on February 3, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Xu Xi Official Website; Fan Wu Official Website
  30. ↑ Bury My Bones in America: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  31. ↑ Inheritance: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  32. ↑ Mrs. Spring Fragrance: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; The Chinaman Pacific & Frisco RR Co. limited online version in Google Book Search - USA ; Pangs of Love: David Wong Louie: Pangs of Love . Enotes.com. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Rocio G. Davis: David Wong Louie (1954-) ; in: Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Biobliographical Critical Sourcebook , pp. 173ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA ); Hunger: hunger . Us.penguingroup.com. Archived from the original on March 28, 2007. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Lan Samantha Chang: pear tree v. Lan Samantha Chang Interview; Phoenix Eyes and Other Stories: limited online version in Google Book Search - USA ; Russell Leong: Russell Leong . Aasc.ucla.edu. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2010 .; Christina Chiu: Faces at Bates - Alumni Profiles
  33. ^ Hardship and horror in exodus from China . News.google.com. October 16, 1964. Retrieved June 18, 2010.
  34. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  35. ^ Film: Janice R. Welsch, JQ Adams: Multicultural Films: A Reference Guide , p. 45 ( restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  36. ^ Gates of Grace , Los Angeles Times, March 2, 1986
  37. ↑ Ed Ruggero: Duty First: A Year in the Life of West Point and the Making of American Leanders , p. 30 ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  38. ↑ waylaid ( Memento of 23 July 2011 at the Internet Archive ), Official Website
  39. ^ The Bitter Society (Russell C. Leong: Paths of Stone, Rivers of Ink: The Sineo-American World through Its Writers ).
  40. ↑ Julie Brown: Ethnicity and the American Short Story, p. 119 restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Amy WS Lee: Monfoon Leong ; in: Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Biobliographical Critical Sourcebook , p. 155ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  41. ^ Karl Bridges: 100 Great American Novels You've (Probably) Never Read , pp. 118f ( restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA ); John C. Hawley: Gus Lee , in: Emmanuel Sampath Nelson (Ed.): Asian American novelists: a bio-bibliographical critical sourcebook , p. 185ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  42. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  43. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  44. ↑ Xiaoping Yen: Fae Myenne Ng (1957–) [recte 1956]; ; in: Emmanuel Sampath Nelson (Ed.): Asian American novelists: a bio-bibliographical critical sourcebook , p. 261ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  45. ↑ Steer Toward Rock: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Perseverance Brings Misfortune Review in The New York Times, August 3, 2008
  46. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Pleased to Be Here New York Times Review, Nov. 25, 2007
  47. ^ A b Valley Girl Review, New York Times, Sept. 2, 2001
  48. ↑ Eleanor Wong Telemaque ( Memento from February 16, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Official website Eleanor Wong Telemaque's America ( Memento from March 27, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  49. ^ Son Number One Full Online Text
  50. ↑ Cora Agatucci: Gish Jen (1956-) ; in: Laurie Champion, Rhonda Austin: Contemporary American Woman Fiction Writers: An A-to-Z Guide , p. 147ff restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA
  51. ↑ Flower Drum Song in the Internet Broadway Database ; Flower Drum Song in the Internet Movie Database (English)
  52. ↑ Crossings limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Guiyou Huang: Asian American autobiographers: A Bio-Biobliographical Critical Sourcebook , p. 61 ff. ( Online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  53. ↑ Feeling the outsider in an inclusive family review in the San Francisco Chronicle, September 19, 2004
  54. ↑ Kenneth Millard: Coming of Age in Contemporary American Fiction , p. 58 ff. ( Limited online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  55. ↑ The Barbarians are Coming
  56. ↑ Sandra Tsing Loh Official Website
  57. ↑ Chih-Ping Chen: Shawn Wong (1949–) ; in: Emmanuel Sampath Nelson (Ed.): Asian American novelists: a bio-bibliographical critical sourcebook , p. 391ff ( online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  58. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  59. ^ No Physical Evidence ( Memento from December 1, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Review; This is a Bust: Overview in Google Book Search - USA
  60. ↑ Patricia Chao Official Website
  61. ↑ Who's Irish? ( April 17, 2009 memento on the Internet Archive ), online text in the New York Times
  62. ↑ The Hell Screens ( Memento from November 27, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  63. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  64. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; THEATER: For These Bonded Souls, Some Luck but Little Joy Review in the New York Times, April 27, 1999
  65. ↑ The wife of the fire god: limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  66. ^ Opera Review: 'The Bonesetter's Daughter' San Francisco Chronicle, September 15, 2008; The Bonesetter's Daughter Events ( Memento from November 28, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  67. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA ; Ghost Story , New York Times reviewed October 29, 1995
  68. ↑ limited online version in the Google Book Search USA
  69. ↑ Sacvan Bercovitch, Cyrus RK Patell: The Cambridge History of American Literature: Prose writing, 1940-1990 , p 685 ( limited online version in Google Buchsuche- USA )
  70. ↑ Karla Jay: Lesbian erotics , p. 62ff ( limited online version in the Google Book Search USA )
  71. ↑ Positive Match Review
  72. ↑ Controversy: Kenneth Eng's “Why I Hate Blacks” ; 'Why I Hate Blacks' Author Defends Column Interview, Fox News, March 6, 2007; Eugenie Foster Official Website
  73. ^ East West Players Official Website
  74. ^ Asian American Theater Company ( Memento April 7, 2001 on the Internet Archive ) Official website; Pan Asian Repertory Theater Official Website; for other Asian-American theaters see : Asian American theater
  75. ↑ Overview in the Google Book Search USA
  76. ^ Forbidden City Blues: Theater Review in the New York Times, April 9, 2002; Dan Kwong Official Website
  77. ↑ The Fan Tan King ( Memento from March 2, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  78. ↑ Arthur Sze ; Nellie Wong ( memento June 19, 2010 on the Internet Archive ); Fay Chiang
  79. ↑ Shirley Geok-lin Lim ( Memento from October 6, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  80. ↑ Mei-mei Berssenbrugge ; Cathy Song ; Merle Woo
  81. ^ Stephen Liu ( memento July 14, 2010 in the Internet Archive ); Tina Chang Official Website
  82. ↑ The Newbery and Caldecott Awards: A Guide to the Medal and Honor Books, p. 135 restricted online version in the Google Book Search USA
  83. ↑ Terrell A. Young: Happily Ever After: Sharing Folk Literature with Elementary and Middle School Students, p. 1994 ( limited online version in Google Book Search - USA )
  84. ↑ TV series: Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat ( Memento from August 27, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  85. ↑ Laurence Yep (1948-) ; Dragonwings ( limited online version in Google Book Search - USA )
  86. ↑ Lisa Yee Official Website
  87. ↑ Grace Lin Official Website
  88. ↑ Minfong Ho ; Nancy Yi Fan ( October 1, 2010 memento on the Internet Archive ); Swordbird Official Website
  89. ^ Raymond K. Wong Official Website
  90. ↑ Chinese-American Literature . Mockingbird.creighton.edu. Archived from the original on July 10, 2010. Retrieved June 18, 2010.
  91. ^ Asian American Studies . Aasp.illinois.edu. Retrieved June 18, 2010.
  92. ↑ Amerasia Journal ( Memento from April 16, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) archive; Asian American Studies Center Editor