High new year

High New Year traditionally refers to January 6th, especially in southern Germany and the Alpine region, but also in the Thuringian-Saxon cultural area, and corresponds to a New Year's concept that has been handed down through customs and popular beliefs. Other terms are Hohneujahr, Great New Year, Great New Year, Oberster or Öberster .

The origin of this New Year's concept was commonly traced back to Christian roots or set in a Christian period. This Christian approach to the conception of January 6th as New Year's Day has meanwhile been questioned because it is not supported by any Christian tradition and has no temporal connection with the calendar changes and adjustments of the 16th to 18th centuries.

This article therefore serves both to compare Christian and pre-Christian interpretations and to present the customs associated with them.

Christian derivations of the New Year character

There are different approaches to explain the New Year's character of January 6th from a Christian tradition, or at least to set its origin in Christian times.

In early Christian Rome itself, January 6th was declared the New Year

This thesis is based on two assertions:

With the introduction of Christianity as the state religion (390/394 AD by Emperor Theodosius I ), due to the pagan character of the old Roman New Year, New Year's Day would be from January 1st to Christian Epiphany Day (day of the apparition of the Lord) of January 6th. The Evangelical Lutheran encyclopedia of church history describes an example: “In the Roman calendar, January 1st in the year 46 BC was officially chosen to be the beginning of the year. On this day there were extravagant celebrations with meals, drinks and offerings. This pagan activity was rejected by the Christians, with the introduction of Christianity as the state religion, New Year's Day was moved to January 6th, the day of Jesus' baptism, and January 1st was declared the day of Lent. "

In the understanding of the early Christian communities within the Imperium Romanum , the date of January 6th - the day of the apparition of the Lord - would have developed into Christian New Year's Day, which has endured as a popular belief. The Austrian Culture Information System cites as an example: “Dreikönig (January 6th), feast of the Three Kings, also feast of the Epiphany; was considered the day of the baptism of Christ (the actual birth) until the 4th century and was regarded as the beginning of the year (high New Year) ”.

In fact, the official Roman New Year's date of January 1 was retained even after the elevation of Christianity to the state religion by Emperor Theodosius I and his successor, a change to this New Year's date due to Christian influences is not recognizable in any documents from late antiquity . Even more, this date - analogous to other Roman traditions (e.g. title Pontifex Maximus ) - was also adopted by the Roman papacy , making the pagan-Roman festive character of this date evident for the church leadership. The first clear distance to the still practiced pagan rituals becomes clear in the sermons of Augustine (probably around 418 AD), combined with first attempts to connect this date more strongly with Christian content.

A deliberate shift of the Roman New Year's date to a Christian-occupied date such as Epiphany cannot be justified by Augustine or later Christian authors - on the contrary, despite all condemnation of the pagan background, the New Year's date is obviously not shaken.

This fact becomes very clear through the topic of the Council of Tours in the year 567, on which, in addition to a ban on the pagan-Roman festival in honor of the god Janus, the New Year's date of January 1st was given a Christian content by the festival of the circumcision of the Lord - here, too, there is no question of moving the traditional New Year's Day to another date. However, the problem persisted for the next 200 years - so the Council of Toledo had to deal with the question again around 636 AD.

Even in the letters of Boniface to Pope Zacharias in 742 AD, the problem of the pagan customs that are still practiced becomes clear, with Calendae Januarii explicitly mentioning January 1st.

In the Western Roman Empire or in the Roman Catholic Church, January 1st, i.e. up to the missionary time of Boniface and thus into the time of the actual Christianization of the southern German cultural area, formed the New Year's concept of the papal church, and can therefore not be the source of the popular belief in southern Germany of January 6th as New Year's Day.

Among other things, this becomes clear for the official ecclesiastical turn of the year 999/1000 AD, for which the incumbent Pope Silvester II had announced the end of the world - a Christian end of the world on a date that was frowned upon as pagan.

Even a popular Christian belief, which within the Western Roman Empire between the 3rd and 4th centuries, deviating from the official church line, expressly carried the idea of January 6th as New Year's Day, does not appear in any source - its transfer to regions completely different , religious, cultural and geographical contexts, which moreover were not Christianized until 300 years later, seem to be excluded.

The idea of January 6th as New Year's Day began in the 9th century

This thesis is based on the assertion that January 6th was one of those official New Year's dates, which has probably been since March 9th / 10th. Century in Europe with different justifications on individual Christian dates became independent.

It is certain that since the 10th century the concept of the New Year in Europe has been linked with numerous dates of the Christian annual cycle - neither in the area of the Holy Roman Empire , nor in Europe at all, is January 6th mentioned as Christian New Year in a source. On the other hand, on the territory of the empire these were demonstrably four Christian anniversaries that were used in the individual territorial chancelleries - January 1st - March 25th - beginning of Easter - December 25th. Since the Carolingians, December 25th as the beginning of Christmas dominated the New Year tradition so much that one could speak of a “German New Year” in the Middle Ages.

There is therefore no source for the claim that the New Year's understanding of January 6th in Germany originated from an official early or high medieval Christian New Year's date.

The idea of January 6th as "New Year" is linked to the veneration of the Three Kings

The veneration of the Three Kings in Germany begins with the transfer of the relics from Milan to Cologne by Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa in 1164 , where the festival of this transfer has been celebrated on July 23, 1164 ever since. Since the 13th century, intensified in the 14th century, a relic veneration emerged from this, which made the Epiphany shrine in Cologne one of the most important pilgrimage sites. Because of this veneration of relics, the veneration of the Three Kings gradually came to the fore in medieval popular piety in German-speaking countries, so that the term “Dreikönigsfest” or “ Dreikönigstag ” is the predominantly used name for January 6th in the Catholic areas of Germany to this day and is interpreted as the reason for the creation of the New Year's thought associated with this day.

The fact is, however, that this veneration of the Magi and the related customs were only fully developed on the basis of the sources in the 16th century, and the mentioning of January 6th as Epiphany began for the first time from the middle of the 14th century, i.e. at a point in time , since the New Year's terms have already become popular - so Hermann von Fritzlar has to explain to people in his book of the Holy Life around 1349 that the (well-known) Supreme Day is also called the Three Kings in another place, even in later sources, this supreme day is not equated with three kings, but with Epiphany .

The idea of January 6th as "New Year" is linked to the calendar reform of 1582

This thesis is based on the assertion that, due to the different handling of the new Gregorian calendar , which was to replace the old Julian calendar since 1582 , especially in the small southern German territories between Catholic rulers (which immediately followed the change) and Protestant rulers ( which only understood the change in the 17th century) came to calendar differences, which were perceived as the time between the years , especially at the turn of the year , i.e. with an earlier Catholic New Year's Day and a Protestant New Year's day 10 days later.

Without going into all the other inconsistencies of this thesis, it is sufficient that the sources of the first mentions of January 6th as New Year's Day handed down in popular belief go back to the 14th century, so in no case with the calendar changes and adjustments of the 16th to 17th centuries. Century related.

Conclusion of the Christian interpretation of January 6th as New Year's Day

The individual theses that are used to derive a Christian origin of the New Year's thought on January 6th cannot be substantiated by sources, or are themselves refuted by the sources.

The idea of January 6th as New Year's Day is therefore a date anchored exclusively in popular belief, which, according to today's sources, never had an official Christian or calendar character and could not be generated from it. An interpretation of the New Year's understanding of January 6th as part of an originally pre-Christian annual cycle can therefore no longer be ruled out.

The pre-Christian derivations of the New Year's character

A pre-Christian derivation of the southern German New Year's ideas, which are linked to January 6th, initially deals with the cultural and historical background of the regions concerned.

Historically and archaeologically, five cultural groups have left traces in this area in a way that could have been effective for the emergence of a pre-Christian popular belief up to the time of Christian missions in the 7th and 8th centuries

the Celtic ("Gallic") culture (effective until 15 BC south of the Danube) [ Celts , Gauls ]
the Roman culture (since 15 v. Chr. south of the Danube effectively what a Gallo-Roman culture led to the formation)
the Suebian-Elbe-Germanic culture (effective since 100 BC in southwest Germany, as well as north and east of the Danube)
the Alemannic-Elbe-Germanic culture (effective since 250 AD in southwest Germany and the Alpine foothills)
the Bavarian-Elbe-Germanic culture (effective since the 6th century in Bavaria and the Alpine region)

All of these cultural influences were still present in various forms in southern German customs up to the 8th century.

Pre-Christian derivation of a high New Year from Gallo-Roman tradition

For the Gallo-Roman culture as it has been since 15 BC BC for the area south of the Danube and the Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes as part of the Roman Empire, two calendar systems have survived.

the official Roman calendar with January 1st as New Year's Day
the Celtic calendar tradition as it u. a. in the calendar of Coligny , whose New Year takes place in November, and which is still celebrated as Halloween / Semhain in the night before November 1st.

In terms of cultural history, the Gallo-Roman cultural groups are therefore out of the question for a traditional New Year's date of January 6th, all the more since the area of this New Year's presentation has also developed far north of the Roman imperial borders and thus also outside the Gallo-Roman cultural borders.

Pre-Christian derivation of a high New Year from Elbe Germanic tradition

In addition to the Gallo-Roman cultural elements, Elbe Germanic cultural elements in particular became effective in the regions that handed down such a folk tradition ( Elbe Germanic ). "Elbe Germanic" as an archaeological term stands for that Germanic cultural group that ancient authors such as Tacitus can grasp historically as "Suebian" or "Herminonian cultural group" - the archaeological features identified as Elbe Germanic thus coincide with the regional distribution of the Peoples who understood themselves as " Suebi ", or as part of the "Suebi cult and tribal community".

These are around 100 BC. BC initially areas in Schleswig-Holstein , Mecklenburg , Brandenburg , eastern Lower Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt with a focus on both sides of the Elbe .

In the course of the 1st Elbe-Germanic (Suebic) migration in the 1st century BC This cultural area expanded to Thuringia , Hesse , Franconia , Bohemia and Baden-Württemberg , whereby the latter region retained its Gallo-Roman dominance insofar as it became part of the Roman provinces.

In the course of the 2nd Elbe Germanic (Alemannic) migration since 250 AD, these regions of the former Roman provinces, Germania superior , Agri decumates , and Raetia were also included in the Elbe Germanic cultural area.

Most recently, with the immigration of the Bavarian tribes ( Bajuwaren ) to Bavaria and the Alpine region, the third and last Elbe Germanic conquest took place in AD 500 , with areas of the Gallo-Roman province of Noricum being affected for the first time .

If one compares the cultural area that has arisen since 500 AD, which is archaeologically and historically considered to be Elbe-Germanic, it becomes clear that it largely coincides with the regions in which a New Year's performance on January 6th has been held in popular belief since the early Middle Ages was carried on, whereby this idea can be established for Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bavaria, Southeast Hesse and Thuringia and the Alpine region - in the cultural area of those three peoples Alemanni, Bavarians and Thuringians, who are also the last bearers of Elbe Germanic culture in the German-speaking area be considered, the Lombards moved outside of this cultural area.

This area is also linguistically defined as “ Upper Germany ”, in which the “Upper German dialects” show their Elbe Germanic commonality, to which linguistically the extinct Longobard belongs.

In those northern regions, on the other hand, where the Elbe Germanic culture is no longer archaeologically verifiable from a certain period due to historical emigration, only sparse and exclusively "early" individual records of a New Year's understanding from January 6th have survived.

Sources of a pre-Christian Germanic festival on January 6th

South German sources: First of all, there are a few early medieval sources for the Alemannic cultural area, whose Christian authors do not implicitly name a direct “New Year's character”, but describe January 6th as a festival with a pagan background.

On the edge of the Vita Sancti Galli of Notker I (Balbulos) from the time 883-890 AD, we can see that in Epiphany people still celebrated the day in some places with all sorts of pernicious magic, pagan customs, fortune-telling, and evil parades - as in the time of the venerable Gallus - which should basically be an attack on the negligence of some Christian rulers. Gallus worked at the beginning of the 7th century on Lake Constance and in northern Switzerland.

Notker does not explicitly tell us that these were New Year's customs, after all, such a hustle and bustle, described as "pagan", cannot be traced back to the Christian character of Epiphany.

If one compares this passage with the text from the letter 50 of Boniface to Pope Zacharias, in which he asked for advice on the matter of pagan New Year customs (which he unfortunately did not date), then astonishing parallels become apparent - so Notker describes for the 6th January a pagan goings-on that Boniface describes for the New Year's custom.

Nordic sources: The fact that there was a festival in Germanic-pagan times that was connected with January 6th is also supported by a report by Thietmar von Merseburg , who reports on a cult celebration among the Danes, the "Am Tage, an dem we celebrate the Lord's apparition, ”took place. Whether older North Suebian structures were preserved in Holstein under early Danish rule, or whether a basically Germanic seasonal conception is hidden in this festival, remains the same in the result - but brings further seasonal connections into play.

Jul and his New Year's customs elements: In Thietmar's report, elements of the old Yule festival are combined with the character of the festival described , as they are also sometimes associated with “seasonal” rituals in other written traditions. According to Snorri's stories in the saga about Håkon I the Good, the Yule Festival took place at the time of the waxing moon after the winter solstice, a period that marked the end of that July month in mid-January.

According to the Old West Norse calendar, midwinter night fell in the middle of the winter half-year, around January 14th, so it was not the festival of the winter solstice. Other pre-Christian sources also show that the old midwinter festival did not correspond to the winter solstice. Midsummer and Midsummer festivals used to mark the middle of these half-years in the ancient Central European calendars with two seasons (winter and summer) , which were in January / February and July / August. From the dates of these sources it can be concluded that the festival was based on a comparable position of the sun, which from north to south fell out the earlier the earlier this position of the sun was reached - this could already be done in central and southern Germany compared to western Norway at the beginning of January Be case.

When this old Yule festival in Norway was moved to the day of Christmas on December 25th by the Norwegian King Håkon the Good in 940, some essential customs were also transformed, which retained their seasonal character there, and the great resemblance to southern German customs Exhibit high new year. [See in detail under Customs.]

Interpretation of the Dodecahemeron as a means of Christianizing and fixing the Rauhnächte

The circumstances that led to the introduction of the extended Christmas octave to the 12 days of Dodecahemeron appear more significant than the evidence given by the early Christian missionaries. Until the official introduction of December 25th as the “birthday of Jesus” around 354 AD by Pope Liberius, January 6th was celebrated as the day of the “Appearance of the Lord - Epiphany” in the sense of a kind of “birthday”. This understanding persisted particularly in the parishes of the Eastern Church, so that early on the search was made for possibilities of a “reconciliation of the old and the new Christmas”. The first attempts to do this are said to have existed in Syria before 373 through Ephrem the Syrians, which, however, were never really taken into account by the papal western church.

At the Franconian Synod of Tours in 567, which, at the invitation of the Franconian king, was supposed to discuss predominantly "Franconian" questions, this idea was suddenly taken up again after almost 200 years and introduced into the official church year as Dodekahemeron. On the one hand, it can be assumed that behind the extension of the usual Christmas octave to 12 days until Epiphany, there was also the disempowerment of the Roman New Year's date, which stood at the end of the old octave. The problem of a necessary “reconciliation of old and new Christmas thoughts”, on the other hand, was not present in the Western Church.

On the other hand, it is noticeable that these 12 days in the Germanic-pagan parts of the Franconian Empire, which at that time with East Hesse, Thuringia, Alemannia and Bajuwaria comprised almost exclusively Elbe-Germanic cultural areas, were characterized by the typical demonic-pagan Rauhnacht- Character were superimposed, as it is internalized there in numerous terms to this day.

The assumption that the introduction of the Dodecahemeron as the explicitly “Most Holy Christian Era” in the year 567 led to the development of an associated pagan concept of demons from this period seems absurd. The only logical consequence, therefore, is the reverse conclusion, that those 12 Holy Days should give an already existing pagan idea of the Rauhnächte a Christian content as a clearly defined period, that their introduction at that Franconian Synod also had this explicit background.

It is therefore irrelevant whether this pre-Christian understanding of the "Rauhnächte" up to the year 567 was based on a flexible period of time according to certain phases of the moon, or was already fixed in the calendar due to Roman cultural influences - at the latest now this pre-Christian period was attached to the Dodecahemeron Time between December 25th and January 6th - the related New Year's understanding is therefore linked to January 6th or Epiphany.

Conclusion of pre-Christian interpretation of January 6th as New Years Day

It can be stated that January 6th is associated with Germanic-pre-Christian celebrations, the character of which shows seasonal elements, which in southern German customs are still associated with the notion of a “High New Year” and which are also related to the festive character of the Nordic Yule Festival show, which was also celebrated in January before it was moved to the Christian Christmas date.

regional customs

With a pre-Christian idea of January 6th as New Year's Day, further elements of popular belief and a sometimes extensive regional customs are combined.

Rough nights and high New Years

The Rauhnächte (also Raunacht or Rauchnacht) or twelve nights (wrongly also "Twelfth") or Bell Nights are some nights around the turn of the year, which are given special importance in southern German customs. Usually it is about the twelve nights between Christmas (December 25th) and the appearance of the Lord (January 6th). These nights probably originally formed the annual 11 leap days after the winter solstice, with which an unknown (Elbe-Germanic?) Lunar calendar was synchronized with the solar year , and which was thought of as a "standstill" time with which numerous end-time ideas were connected. According to this popular belief, this was the time in which demonic forces of midwinter filled the nocturnal world and then withdrew again in the night of January 6th, "the wild hunt" came to rest at the end of the rough nights. Especially that last night before the New Year - the "Oberstnacht" or "Obrist Day" - was of particular importance in this popular belief.

The most important motive of the Rauhnächte and above all the last "Oberstnacht" in traditional customs is therefore the protection and defense of one's own home against "evil forces", the most important means of which is smoking with substances to which defensive powers are assigned, as well as the use of defense symbols , often with white chalk, since the color white has an apotropaic function. Moving outside of this “protection” at night necessarily entailed great danger and was subject to restrictive regulations.

At the same time, the Rauhnächte as a time between the times formed a moment of “transparency” of the two worlds “this side” and “beyond”, as they are passed down for many calendar “upheaval situations” in ancient cultures and which therefore always form special lost days . The last of these nights, the “uppermost night”, was one of the most important oracle nights, as it was closest to the New Year and thus the future with its “window of vision”.

The motif of “preparation for the new year” is also strongly present in the traditional motifs of the Rauhnächte, in the sense of internal (personal) and external order (house and yard). Above all, the external order of the house was subject to the supervision of the Perchten figure in numerous traditions , who accompanied the Rauhnächte in this sense as a kind of guardian.

The Perchtentag

According to old tradition, January 6th is also referred to as the Perchten day (in numerous word variations also often written with "B"), sometimes referred to as the Perchten night in its meaning associated with the Rauhnächten. The meaning is very old (first sources from the 13th century) and independent. For a better understanding, the Perchtentag was often mentioned with the other meanings that are connected with January 6th. Examples:

the Perchtentag what is the highest,
the Perchtentag or also called Driu Kings,
the night of Perchten before Epiphany.

At the same time, this means that the Perchtennacht is not known everywhere in the region, i.e. is explained with the more well-known meanings, and that it is not derived from any of the other meanings - its meaning is original.

The Perchtentag is directly related to the figure of the Perchta and predominantly in a meaning as "light figure " (ahd. Peraht 'bright, shiny', which means 'the shiny'), which welcomes the new year "high new year" in this motif. At the same time, however, its shape is also linked to the entire period of the Rauhnächte between December 25 and January 6, here with motifs of a pre-Christian judging deity who punishes negligence and rewards diligence - it obviously reflects the popular belief of a kind of guardian the Rauhnächte, which in this sense are given a strong preparatory character for the new year. For more information, see the article Perchta .

The possibility that the figure of the Perchta was formed in the course of the Alemannic-Bavarian conquest of resident Celtic and introduced Elbe-Germanic motifs is probable because the name Perchta itself can hardly be proven beyond the Gallo-Roman cultural area and in the same way Elbe Germanic Thuringia as in neighboring Hesse, the motif of Frau Holle takes her place with almost identical content.

The name “Perchta” is handed down even older than the Perchtentag itself. The earliest reliable written evidence comes from the 13th, a probable one from the 12th and a worth considering from the 11th century.

The motif of the Perchtenlaufen , on the other hand, already forms a “demonizing” of the former “figure of light” in the course of late medieval Christian reinterpretation and damnation. They have only been documented since the 16th century and overlay the old meaning.

Protection and blessings on the new year

Some Christian customs on Three Kings / Midsummer's Day reflect ancient, pre-Christian elements of faith: In Catholic Germany , houses were generally blessed according to old customs, but especially in southern Germany this process was maintained with the express aspect of cleaning for the coming year. Holy water , chalk, frankincense and salt are also dedicated for household use in the coming year. The farmer used incense to smoke house and yard, which can also be sprinkled with holy water in order to place himself under the saint, to ward off all evil and to wash away everything that is unclean.

On the lintel, the consecrated chalk is used to draw the year-related symbol CMB, which is understood today in a Christian context - CMB has probably been the name of the Three Kings Kaspar, Melchior and Balthasar since the 16th century, on the other hand it is also interpreted as that very much elder Christ Mansionem Benedicat.

As with the “smoking” of the house, this custom also contains pre-Christian elements. According to old popular belief, the white chalk used to mark the front door has an apotropaic function. Everything white is not visible to the demons, and therefore the blessing “hits” them all the more violently because they did not recognize the danger beforehand. According to folklore, the Christian door cross probably adapts older previous characters.

On the farms, part of the consecrated salt was and is given like cattle to protect it from diseases for the coming year.

Drink stronger

The "strength 'antrinken" (high German "strength antrinken") is an old custom that is widespread on the eve of January 6th, especially in Upper Franconia and the neighboring regions. "Strength" or "strength" stands for strength and health, and thus carries a ritual protective character against the dangers of the coming year by arming oneself against possible adversities. In addition, you drink strength and health - the "strength" - with family or friends. It is often celebrated in restaurants in which a strong beer specially produced by many breweries is served, which is said to be particularly suitable for “drinking strength”. In some areas, however, it is quite common not to drink the starch until the evening of January 6th.

In addition, old pre-Christian ideas of intoxication as "closeness to God" appear in this custom, which were ritualistic especially at pagan high feasts. Here, too, connections between New Year's and July customs become clear. From the saga "Haraldskvædi", which originated around 900 AD, an almost similar pre-Christian Christmas custom is described. There it says in the 6th stanza: "The king wants to drink the Jul outside (on the sea) and start the game of Freyr." The phrase "Jul drink" suggests that drinking was an essential part of the Yule festival, which used to be was celebrated almost simultaneously in January. Numerous sources on this see under Yule Festival .

literature

Hugo Kehrer : The Three Kings in Literature and Art . Volume 1. Seemann, Leipzig 1908 (reprint: Olms, Hildesheim et al. 1976, ISBN 3-487-06088-4 ).
Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla. Legends of the Nordic kings . Edited, translated and commented by Hans-Jürgen Hube. Marix, Wiesbaden 2006, ISBN 3-86539-084-6 .
Michael Tangel (ed.): The letters of St. Bonifatius and Lullus . 2nd unchanged edition. Weidmann, Berlin 1955 ( Monumenta Germaniae Historica Epistolae 4, 1, ISSN 0343-1274 ).
The chronicle of Thietmar von Merseburg . After the translation by Johann Christian Moritz Laurent, Johannes Strebitzki and Wilhelm Wattenbach . Retransmitted and edited by Robert Holtzmann . With 48 illustrations by Klaus F. Messerschmidt. Mitteldeutscher Verlag, Halle 2007, ISBN 978-3-89812-513-0 .
Erika Timm: Frau Holle, Frau Percht and related figures. 160 years after Jacob Grimm from a German point of view . Hirzel, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-7776-1230-8 ( German studies ).

Web links

Notes and individual references

^ Ev-Luth. Church district Schleswig-Holstein: Lexicon of church history
^ AEIOU - Austrian Culture Information System
↑ Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Volume 29: Religionspsychologie - Samaritaner, p. 325. Augustinus, Sermones: “They give gifts, you should give alms. Those are called by chants of indulgence, you should call yourselves by the speeches of the scriptures, those run to the theater, you to church, those feast, but you should fast. "
↑ Gerhard Rohlfs: The Anniculae with Caesarius von Aries. In: Studia Neophilologica, Volume 21. In his Aniculae , Caesarius of Arles condemned those noisy processions that were held on the traditional Roman New Year's Eve around 500 AD.
↑ Theological Real Encyclopedia: Religionspsychologie - Samaritaner, Volume 29, Page 325: “In the 6th century, with Gaul as the starting region, a Christian content is sought after Luke 1:21, because New Year's Day was the Christmas octave. New Year's Day becomes the feast of the circumcision of Jesus, with which the naming of Jesus came into focus again […] Accordingly, the Council of Tours forbade participation in feasts in honor of the god Janus […] the Synod of Toledo (636) made a similar statement . "
↑ Tangel: The letters of St. Boniface & Lullus. Weidmann, Berlin 1955, 2nd unchanged edition. - Letter 50 / point 6: "Advice on the pagan activities of the New Year."
↑ One of the most frequently copied quotes of this kind on the Internet is the statement: “Until the New Year's Day was established in 1691 by Pope Innocent XII. On January 1st, January 6th was the beginning of the year in large parts of Europe. ”But it also haunts lectures by German universities, cf. Hans Dieter Huber: The talk of the end and the concept of history. Lecture at the Symposium Computer as a Medium: "Hyperkult 10002. Endzeit / Endspiel". University of Lüneburg, 19. – 21. July 1999. In Germany, on the other hand, the beginning of the year on January 1st only prevailed in the 16th century, in many places January 6th was long considered the “Great New Year”.
↑ Grotefend in Manuscripta-Medievalia (keyword beginning of the year): There are six different beginning of the year: January 1st; 1st March; 25th March; Easter; September 1; December 25th. The special explanation of the use of the beginning of the year with January 1st see under circumcision style, March 1st see under pre-Caesarian beginning of the year, March 25th see under annunciations style, Easter see under Easter beginning, September 1st see under Byzantine beginning of the year, December 25th see under Christmas beginning .
↑ Grotefend in Manuscripta-Medievalia (keyword beginning of Christmas ): “Germany is to be regarded as the real seat of the beginning of Christmas. With the exception of Trier, which, with its suffragandioceses, is dealt with in Annunciationsstil, almost all of Germany dated to the beginning of December 25th in the Middle Ages, following the example of Mainz, the old ecclesiastical metropolis. Cologne and the suffragans (with the exception of Münster, which assumed January 1st) also turned to the beginning of Christmas at the beginning of the 14th century, instead of the previous beginning of Easter (see beginning of Easter). Minden had probably always had it. "
↑ Internet portal of the Diocese of Linz : http://www.dioezese-linz.at/ : “The adoration of the Three Kings was so strong that Epiphany was on January 6th for the Great New Year, the popular New Year's Day at the beginning of the journey through the New Year although the calendar says a different New Year's Day. That is why the festive calendar of the new year is solemnly proclaimed at the end of the festive service. "
↑ Grotefend in Manuscripta-Medievalia: After the obristen day of christmas, which in latin is called epiphania domini 1404 (Mon. Zoll. VI.); Heidelberg on Thursday the supreme epiphania domini on latin 1409 (Helwig from the HA); 1432 afftermentag after the obrostentag ze wyhenachten (writings of the Ver. Für Gesch. Des Bodensee, 18).
↑ Hugo Kehrer: The three holy kings in literature and arts. 1st volume. Seemann, Leipzig 1908, p. 49: In a document of the Fürstenfeld monastery from the year 1325 you can read: "Am Obersten", in Cod. Germ. 504 of the Hof-Staatsbibliothek Munich from the fifteenth century: "on the obrosten day" . Hermann von Fritzlar in his book of the Holy Life around 1349: "In other lands iz the top day heats [...] driu kunigen [...]".
↑ http://www.obib.de/ /Schriften/AlteSchriften/Europa/Germanen/Semnonen/Semnonen.html#_1
^ Heinrich Tischner: The Celtic Calendar http://www.heinrich-tischner.de/22-sp/1sprach/kelt/kelt-kal.htm
↑ Tacitus: Germania: 38–45 (representation of the Suebi).
^ The chronicle of Thietmar von Merseburg. After the translation by Johann Christian Moritz Laurent, Johannes Strebitzki and Wilhelm Wattenbach. Retransmitted and edited by Robert Holtzmann. With 48 illustrations by Klaus F. Messerschmidt, mdv Halle 2008.
↑ Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla. Legends of the Nordic kings. Commented by Hans-Jürgen Hube. Wiesbaden (Marix) 2006. - Hákonar saga góða (Aðalsteinsfóstra).
↑ Jan Hirschbiegel : Etrennes. Oldenburg 2003, p. 42 ff .; Odette Pontal: Synods in the Merovingian Empire. Paderborn 1986.
^ Manfred Becker-Huberti : Lexicon of festivals and customs. Herder, Freiburg i. Br., Special edition 2007: “The eve of Epiphany played a special role in popular belief. On the last evening of the Twelve Rauhnächte, which was considered the worst and was therefore called Oberstnacht, the year-end customs reappeared: belief in demons and Christianity were remarkably linked here. "
↑ Grotefend in Manuscripta Mediaevalia: Perchtag, perchtentag, perhtentag, perchttag, perichtag, prechtag, prechentag, prehentag, perchtnachten [also in the spelling Berchtag, Berhtag, Berchtentag, Berchtnacht, reporting night] - January 6, Epiphania domini. Mondays after the prechentag that is according to the Oberisten 1337 (Helwig from the HA). Also with the addition of holy: 1367 the next Friday after the Heyllingen Prechentag (Font. Rer. Austr. II, 10, 421); on the holy day of periht 1328 (ibid. II, 16, 118). The date shows that perchtnachten also means January 6th itself, not the vigil: on the dreyer chunige day ze perchnahten 1331 (Steyermärk. Archive). 1298 on the eighth day of Perichtnacht (Font, rer, Austr. II, 6, 211) is the Octava epiphany. The evening (vigil) is therefore always specifically expressed: on the evening of the holy prehemday 1376 (Helwig from the HA). S. Schmeller / Frommann: Bavarian Dictionary, p. 269.
↑ Jacob Grimm: German Mythology. Olms-Weidmann, Hildesheim 2003, p. 220 ff.
↑ Erika Timm: Frau Holle, Frau Percht and related figures. 160 years after Jacob Grimm from a German point of view. Hirzel, Stuttgart 2003, p. 55.
↑ Manfred Becker-Huberti: http://www.heilige-dreikoenige.de/lexikon/index.html
↑ Report of the daily newspaper "Frankenpost" on marlesreuth.de ( Memento of September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
See also under the article "Strength 'antrinken" under Apparition of the Lord .

[1] Ev-Luth. Church district Schleswig-Holstein: Lexicon of church history

[2] AEIOU - Austrian Culture Information System

[3] Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Volume 29: Religionspsychologie - Samaritaner, p. 325. Augustinus, Sermones: “They give gifts, you should give alms. Those are called by chants of indulgence, you should call yourselves by the speeches of the scriptures, those run to the theater, you to church, those feast, but you should fast. "

[4] Gerhard Rohlfs: The Anniculae with Caesarius von Aries. In: Studia Neophilologica, Volume 21. In his Aniculae , Caesarius of Arles condemned those noisy processions that were held on the traditional Roman New Year's Eve around 500 AD.

[5] Theological Real Encyclopedia: Religionspsychologie - Samaritaner, Volume 29, Page 325: “In the 6th century, with Gaul as the starting region, a Christian content is sought after Luke 1:21, because New Year's Day was the Christmas octave. New Year's Day becomes the feast of the circumcision of Jesus, with which the naming of Jesus came into focus again […] Accordingly, the Council of Tours forbade participation in feasts in honor of the god Janus […] the Synod of Toledo (636) made a similar statement . "

[6] Tangel: The letters of St. Boniface & Lullus. Weidmann, Berlin 1955, 2nd unchanged edition. - Letter 50 / point 6: "Advice on the pagan activities of the New Year."

[7] One of the most frequently copied quotes of this kind on the Internet is the statement: “Until the New Year's Day was established in 1691 by Pope Innocent XII. On January 1st, January 6th was the beginning of the year in large parts of Europe. ”But it also haunts lectures by German universities, cf. Hans Dieter Huber: The talk of the end and the concept of history. Lecture at the Symposium Computer as a Medium: "Hyperkult 10002. Endzeit / Endspiel". University of Lüneburg, 19. – 21. July 1999. In Germany, on the other hand, the beginning of the year on January 1st only prevailed in the 16th century, in many places January 6th was long considered the “Great New Year”.

[8] Grotefend in Manuscripta-Medievalia (keyword beginning of the year): There are six different beginning of the year: January 1st; 1st March; 25th March; Easter; September 1; December 25th. The special explanation of the use of the beginning of the year with January 1st see under circumcision style, March 1st see under pre-Caesarian beginning of the year, March 25th see under annunciations style, Easter see under Easter beginning, September 1st see under Byzantine beginning of the year, December 25th see under Christmas beginning .

[9] Grotefend in Manuscripta-Medievalia (keyword beginning of Christmas ): “Germany is to be regarded as the real seat of the beginning of Christmas. With the exception of Trier, which, with its suffragandioceses, is dealt with in Annunciationsstil, almost all of Germany dated to the beginning of December 25th in the Middle Ages, following the example of Mainz, the old ecclesiastical metropolis. Cologne and the suffragans (with the exception of Münster, which assumed January 1st) also turned to the beginning of Christmas at the beginning of the 14th century, instead of the previous beginning of Easter (see beginning of Easter). Minden had probably always had it. "

[10] Internet portal of the Diocese of Linz : http://www.dioezese-linz.at/ : “The adoration of the Three Kings was so strong that Epiphany was on January 6th for the Great New Year, the popular New Year's Day at the beginning of the journey through the New Year although the calendar says a different New Year's Day. That is why the festive calendar of the new year is solemnly proclaimed at the end of the festive service. "

[11] Grotefend in Manuscripta-Medievalia: After the obristen day of christmas, which in latin is called epiphania domini 1404 (Mon. Zoll. VI.); Heidelberg on Thursday the supreme epiphania domini on latin 1409 (Helwig from the HA); 1432 afftermentag after the obrostentag ze wyhenachten (writings of the Ver. Für Gesch. Des Bodensee, 18).

[12] Hugo Kehrer: The three holy kings in literature and arts. 1st volume. Seemann, Leipzig 1908, p. 49: In a document of the Fürstenfeld monastery from the year 1325 you can read: "Am Obersten", in Cod. Germ. 504 of the Hof-Staatsbibliothek Munich from the fifteenth century: "on the obrosten day" . Hermann von Fritzlar in his book of the Holy Life around 1349: "In other lands iz the top day heats [...] driu kunigen [...]".

[13] ttp://www.obib.de/ /Schriften/AlteSchriften/Europa/Germanen/Semnonen/Semnonen.html#_1

[14] Heinrich Tischner: The Celtic Calendar http://www.heinrich-tischner.de/22-sp/1sprach/kelt/kelt-kal.htm

[15] Tacitus: Germania: 38–45 (representation of the Suebi).

[16] The chronicle of Thietmar von Merseburg. After the translation by Johann Christian Moritz Laurent, Johannes Strebitzki and Wilhelm Wattenbach. Retransmitted and edited by Robert Holtzmann. With 48 illustrations by Klaus F. Messerschmidt, mdv Halle 2008.

[17] Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla. Legends of the Nordic kings. Commented by Hans-Jürgen Hube. Wiesbaden (Marix) 2006. - Hákonar saga góða (Aðalsteinsfóstra).

[18] Jan Hirschbiegel : Etrennes. Oldenburg 2003, p. 42 ff .; Odette Pontal: Synods in the Merovingian Empire. Paderborn 1986.

[19] Manfred Becker-Huberti : Lexicon of festivals and customs. Herder, Freiburg i. Br., Special edition 2007: “The eve of Epiphany played a special role in popular belief. On the last evening of the Twelve Rauhnächte, which was considered the worst and was therefore called Oberstnacht, the year-end customs reappeared: belief in demons and Christianity were remarkably linked here. "

[20] Grotefend in Manuscripta Mediaevalia: Perchtag, perchtentag, perhtentag, perchttag, perichtag, prechtag, prechentag, prehentag, perchtnachten [also in the spelling Berchtag, Berhtag, Berchtentag, Berchtnacht, reporting night] - January 6, Epiphania domini. Mondays after the prechentag that is according to the Oberisten 1337 (Helwig from the HA). Also with the addition of holy: 1367 the next Friday after the Heyllingen Prechentag (Font. Rer. Austr. II, 10, 421); on the holy day of periht 1328 (ibid. II, 16, 118). The date shows that perchtnachten also means January 6th itself, not the vigil: on the dreyer chunige day ze perchnahten 1331 (Steyermärk. Archive). 1298 on the eighth day of Perichtnacht (Font, rer, Austr. II, 6, 211) is the Octava epiphany. The evening (vigil) is therefore always specifically expressed: on the evening of the holy prehemday 1376 (Helwig from the HA). S. Schmeller / Frommann: Bavarian Dictionary, p. 269.

[21] Jacob Grimm: German Mythology. Olms-Weidmann, Hildesheim 2003, p. 220 ff.

[22] Erika Timm: Frau Holle, Frau Percht and related figures. 160 years after Jacob Grimm from a German point of view. Hirzel, Stuttgart 2003, p. 55.

[23] Manfred Becker-Huberti: http://www.heilige-dreikoenige.de/lexikon/index.html

[24] Report of the daily newspaper "Frankenpost" on marlesreuth.de ( Memento of September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
See also under the article "Strength 'antrinken" under Apparition of the Lord .