Chinese nobility
The nobility in the empire of China was subject to several thousand years of change . Earlier than in Europe , a feudal system , a sedentary administration and finally a state emerged, which shaped the culture and social structure of the empire. Despite internal and external upheavals, typical forms of expression remained the same, such as the patriarchy , the primogeniture of numerous titles or the central authority of the supreme ruler and his court. It was only with the abolition of the empire that the social power of the Chinese nobility was broken.
Overview
Traditionally, Chinese titles are translated into European titles and vice versa as follows:
- huáng ( 皇帝 , Huángdì ) - emperor
- wáng ( 王 , wáng ) - prince / king
- gōng ( 公爵 , gōngjué ) - duke
- hóu ( 侯爵 , hóujué ) - margrave
- bó ( 伯爵 , bójué ) - Count
- zǐ ( 子爵 , zǐjué ) - Viscount
- nán ( 男爵 , nánjué ) - baron
The last five of these nobility ranks are called Wujue ( 五 爵 , wǔjué - "five ranks").
Historical background: Zhouli
The aristocratic system of China was formed in the 1st millennium BC. Chr. During the Zhou Dynasty out. Confucius codified in his work on the rites of the Zhou ( 周禮 , zhōulǐ ) shortly after the birth of Christ the traditional nobility system of the Zhou dynasty, which became the basis for the nobility levels in China, even if the system was constantly evolving.
The historical basis for Confucius' Zhōulǐ was the feudal reward system ( 封建 , fēngjiàn ) and inheritance or tribal law ( 宗法 , zōngfǎ ) during the multi-century Zhou dynasty. According to this, titles could be awarded which were inherited by the eldest son. Further sons, whether with the main wife, with a concubine or with a mistress, received the rank one step lower than that of the father. This regulation ensured that about all the younger descendants of a gong fell out of the nobility in the fifth generation.
The system Zhōulǐ announced alongside the nobles ( 諸侯 , zhū hóu ) and the non-noble objects in other layers one: Ordinary ( 庶民 , shù mín ), Free ( 士 , shì ), officials or bureaucrats ( 大夫 , dà fū ) and Minister ( 卿 , qīng ). The meaning of these terms shifted over time; For example, dà fū was used to designate a medical doctor in the late Empire, while the Zhou positions of officials and ministers were later carried out by mandarins .
The Zhōulǐ further distinguished four classes of non- aristocrats : the scholars, artisans, farmers and traders. This class system was permeable, allowing a trader's son to become a craftsman.
Wang
The title of Wang ( 王 , wáng ) referred to the ruler of the Chinese empire in the time of the Zhou dynasty (10th to 2nd century BC). The use and meaning of the much older term Wang in the previous dynasties of the Shang and Xia , whose rulers still referred to themselves as di ( 帝 , dì ), is not fully understood .
Under the Qin dynasty , the old nobility names, including those of Wang, were abolished. From the Han dynasty onwards, the title of Wang was the highest nobility title below the Huangdi. Initially, people who trusted the Huangdi were appointed to be Wang, but after the first rebellion against the Han, the position of Wang was filled exclusively with relatives of the Han Huangdi. This changed in the time of the Southern and Northern Dynasties , when in the north the title Wang was often given along with a regional fief for military merits. From the time of the Sui and Tang dynasties, the title Wang was given in various degrees and almost exclusively to relatives of the Huangdi.
In the Western translation of the title is usually up to the Zhou Dynasty translated by a king (of China), in the periods after that of a prince (English: prince ), even if it is not an actual relatives or even heir of Huangdi acts.
gong
The title of the gong ( 公 , gōng , in older European transcriptions also Kong ) denoted the highest level of tributary princes of the feudal state in the time of the Western Zhou (10th to 7th centuries BC). At the beginning of the spring and autumn annals, the gong gained sovereignty over their principalities and even referred to themselves arbitrarily as Wang during the War of the States .
From the Han dynasty , the title of the gong was the second highest nobility title below the Wang and Huangdi; Sons of a Wang out of line of succession were relegated to this class. Depending on how closely related a gong was to the Huangdi, there were further subtle gradations in the ranking. From the Han dynasty onwards, gongs only rarely had a direct feudal power function, but were mostly degraded to courtiers (also 王公 , wánggōng ) within the ruler's sphere of influence. Later dynasties divided the gongs into numerous other subclasses.
In the Western translation of the title is usually Gong (English: with a duke duke ) translated.
Gongzi / Gongzhu
The term Gongzi ( 公子 , gōngzǐ ) later generally referred to the sons of princes; the designation Gongsun ( 公孫 , Gongsun ) for the grandson of a prince was common. Even in modern times, the term is considered particularly polite flattery towards a stranger, transferred for example to a distinguished gentleman . However, the term takes on a derogatory function in the broader meaning of the newly rich or upstart .
All female members of the imperial family with the exception of the Huangdi's wife (the Huanghou) could generally be referred to as Gongzhu ( 公主 , gōngzhǔ ). This title will be (English: in Western languages commonly referred to as Princess princess ) translated.
Hou
In the western translation, the title of the Hou ( 侯 , hóu ) is usually translated with that of a marquis . From the Hou , which is simply translated as prince outside of the ranking system , the remaining ranks developed. An early name for the entire nobility was Zhuhou ( 諸侯 , zhūhóu - "All princes"), until some families under the Zhou ( retrospectively ) were classified in the higher class of the Gong. During the Han Dynasty, the title of Hou was the only rank of nobility given to non-members of the Huangdi family. At the same time, the Hou were divided into nineteen additional classes, the nine highest of which were awarded for military service, the rest could be earned or even bought. In later dynasties, the remaining ranks were used.
Bo, Zi and Nan
In the western translation, the title of Bo ( 伯 , bó ) is usually translated with that of a count (English: count or earl ), the title of Zi ( 子 , zǐ ) with that of a vice count / viscount (English: viscount ), the Title of the Nan ( 男 , nán ) with that of the Baron (English: Baron ).
The three lower ranks were only used with additional identifiers due to the ambiguity of their syllables, such as together with the name or as the full form of the title (县 子 for the viscount during the Yuan dynasty ). For example, the syllable 子 (zǐ) in the Chinese language is also used as the ending of a pet form and as an honorary designation for venerated personalities such as Confucius ( 孔 夫子 , kǒng fūzǐ ) and Laozi ( 老子 , Lǎozǐ ). The syllable 男 (nán) is used in the Chinese language as a name for the masculine . This makes the distinction necessary.
These three ranks fell out of use for about 500 years after the Zhou period, but returned to general use from the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
Emperor of China
Before Qin Shihuangdi , the terms Huang ( 皇 , huáng ) were used for god-king / exalted and Di ( 帝 , dì ) for ancestral king / emperor . Both terms can also be translated differently, but show the veneration of the superhuman or semi-divine being that is referred to by them. Qin Shihuangdi used this existing conceptual material from the myths of the eight great emperors of China ( Three Huang and Five Di ) when he was born in 221 BC. After the overthrow of all competing Wang, the title of Huangdi ( 皇帝 , Huángdì ) was introduced. In doing so, he demonstrated his claim to be a greater ruler than any of the Wang before him; his title also included the Shi , which shows his ranking as the first Huangdi. The word component Di also symbolized his connection with the divine concept of Shangdi . The title of Huangdi should not be confused with the Yellow Emperor ( 黃帝 , Huángdì ).
After the end of the Qin dynasty, all rulers with the right to total rule over China carried the title of Huangdi until the abdication of the Puyis in 1912. Dynasties that emerged from foreign rulers, such as the Yuan Dynasty of the Mongols, carried the title of Huangdi next to their foreign titles. As in Europe, for example with popes and counter- popes , it was not uncommon for several Huangdi to officiate at the same time.
In the western translation, the title Huangdi is usually translated as Kaiser von China (English: Emperor ), the literal meaning is paraphrased as exalted divine .
Tianzi
The title of Tianzi ( 天子 , tiānzǐ ) literally means son of heaven and was used regardless of rank by many sovereign rulers of China. The term, which first appeared in the Zhou dynasty , is based on the concept of the mandate of heaven ( 天命 , tiānmìng ), which must not be confused with the European term of divine grace , as it only legitimizes rule as long as it is good or successful is. Tianzi as the title of ruler also symbolized the claim to rule over the Tianxia (literally: [everything] under heaven ), that is, the world.
Imperial family
If the father of a reigning Huangdi was still alive, he was given the title Tai Shang Huang ( 太上皇 ), literally something like the imperial superfather . The practice was introduced by Han Gaozu , who wanted to avoid his peasant father humiliating himself in front of him. A similar designation was also used for the mother of Huangdi: 皇太后 , huáng tài hòu , which in the case of the particularly well-known Cixi was correctly translated as empress widow for her case .
The main consorts of the Huangdi were called Huanghou ( 皇后 , huánghòu - "Imperial Queen"). According to the zhouli , however, concubines were allowed to an emperor: three concubines ( 夫人 , fūrén ), nine imperial concubines ( 嬪 ), 27 shifus ( 世 婦 , shìfù ) and 81 imperial wives ( 禦 妻 , yùqī ). Other female family members were usually considered to be princesses or gongzhu .
The Crown Prince was dubbed Huang Taizi ( 皇太子 , huáng tài zǐ - "Imperial Great Son").
It was customary for the successors and heirs of overthrown dynasties to be granted titles of nobility and apanage by the succeeding dynasty . Thus, the former imperial families could continue to worship their heavenly ancestors and represent them to posterity. The Republic of China also granted the last ruling emperor the right to live in the Forbidden City until 1924 .
Further titles and merit
In the southern state of Chu a different court culture prevailed than in the immediate sphere of influence of the Zhou, so that the northern system of rank was only anchored there during the Han dynasty. In particular, the legalistic Qin and the early Han dynasties still assigned positions based on the model of the Chu.
The titles in Chu were mainly given for merit and achievement and were not hereditary. Examples of this include: Tonghou ( 通 侯 , tōnghóu , roughly equivalent to the Hou ); Zhigui ( 執 圭 , zhíguī , jade bearer ), Zhibo ( 執 帛 , zhíbó , silk bearer ).
The general title Jun ( 君 , jūn ) is usually translated as Herr, English: lord . In many cases of the Zhou period he was interchangeable with Hou in the more general meaning of prince .
Later, emperors awarded special titles for meritorious services, which were often tied to a person along with a courtly or even responsible position created for this purpose, for example the title of General Protector of the Western Provinces ( 西域都護 , Xīyù dūhù , English Protector-General of the Western Regions ) for Ban Chao .
Hereditary merit
Very few families were given the right to pass on their status as members of the high nobility in full for their services to the empire. The descendants of Confucius are particularly well-known for this: Members of the Kong family received the hereditary title Hóu of Wisdom ( 衍 聖 侯 , yǎnshèng hóu ) until all family members over the 46th generation were upgraded to gongs in the 11th century .
Ba Wang
People who exercised sovereign power without a regular title of nobility, such as governor or governor, were referred to as Bawang ( 霸王 , bàwáng - "tyrant, tyrant"). Chinese historical research also uses the term hegemon . An example of this is Xiang Yu .
tangerine
From the Tang Dynasty , the mandarins ( 官 , guān , official ), specialists who had been specially trained for the administrative tasks of the empire, appeared. Noble descent was not necessary for the civil service career, but helpful for the filling of the higher and highest positions.
Retrospective changes
Nobles could retrospectively, especially posthumously, move down or rise to higher and lower ranks, for example as a result of imperial decrees. The posthumous change is comparable, but also often more subtle than the European practices of canonization or Damnatio memoriae and means for modern historical research that retrospectively revised source material must be assessed with a critical eye on the author and editor.
Recognition of non-Chinese titles
Sovereign monarchs or chiefs outside the Chinese Empire were usually referred to as Wang, even in the period from the Han dynasty, when Wang was no longer the title of sovereign in China. This followed from the postulated claim to power of the Huangdi and Tianzi to be the overlord of all Wang.
Modern Chinese, on the other hand, uses the literal translation of the nobility forms for foreign monarchs, for example Victoria was considered 女王 , nǚwáng , Queen of England and 女皇 , nǚhuáng , Empress of India, while the princes of Monaco or Luxembourg are only translated as Gong .
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b c d e f China knowledge: Chinese History, wu jue 五 爵 The Five Titles of Nobility (English)
- ^ A b c Klaus Flessel: History, Zhou period. In: Roger Goepper (ed.): Das Alte China. ISBN 3-572-00868-9 , pp. 54-65.
- ↑ With two exceptions: Wang Mang and Cao Cao
- ^ A b Klaus Flessel: History, Qin time. In: Roger Goepper (ed.): Das Alte China. ISBN 3-572-00868-9 , pp. 66-71.
- ^ Endymion Wilkinson: Chinese History: A Manual . Harvard 2000. ISBN 9780674002494 . Pp. 108-110. Digitized