Criticism of the concept of intelligence

The concept of intelligence is often criticized from various sides, in particular the combination of many intellectual achievements in one concept, the measurement with intelligence tests and their result, the IQ . This is primarily a criticism of Charles Spearman's general factor of intelligence (g-factor), the most commonly used concept of intelligence in differential psychology. Other models of intelligence are covered in the articles intelligence theory , theory of multiple intelligences , emotional intelligence and practical intelligence , among others .

It is often criticized that intelligence tests - and thus the commonly used definition of intelligence as a number of cognitive abilities - disadvantage people and especially children from lower social classes or minorities such as African Americans . Other critics completely deny these tests the claim of being able to measure intelligence or criticize possible methodological errors.

Social discrimination

People from the lower social classes and their children achieve a lower IQ on standardized intelligence tests than members of the upper social classes and their children. It could be said that traditional intelligence tests are unfair to workers and their children.

Influence of social class

The psychologists Hans Jürgen Eysenck (1916–1997) and Arthur Jensen (1923–2012) were of the opinion that intelligence is largely inherited and were thus representatives of the nativistic point of view. Still, they agree that aptitude tests do not treat working-class children fairly. Unlike Bourdieu, they believed that aptitude tests measure a genetic ability - but, according to Eysenck, they do not measure a person's entire ability. The typical intelligence tests measure skills that are typically particularly pronounced in middle-class children. However, skills that are particularly pronounced in working class children tend not to be measured.

Jensen and Eysenck also pointed out that these differences only exist in the cognitive (so-called level II performance , level II abilities), but not in the associative performance (so-called level I performance, level I abilities). Jensen wrote of low-IQ lower-class children:

“[…] Many of these children seem to be much more alert than their IQs would lead one to expect… A lower-class child entering a new class will, for example, memorize the names of 20 or 30 children in a few days, and it will be quick learning the rules and skills of various games in the schoolyard and so on - accomplishments that practically belies his IQ, which may not be higher than 60. All of this leaves the impression that the test is 'unfair' to disadvantaged children, since middle-class children at this IQ level usually spend a whole year in a class without learning the names of more than a few classmates. "

- Arthur Jensen : in Hans Jürgen Eysenck "The Inequality of People"

With traditional IQ tests, there are large differences between the layers; According to Eyseneck, there are none in the scout test by Jensen and Eyseneck. In this test, the candidate is shown 30 objects on a tray, which is covered after a certain time. The tested person should then name the items.

“Ordinary IQ tests should not be viewed as 'unfair' in the sense of having an inaccurate and invalid measure of the many disadvantaged children who score low. If they are unfair, it is because they touch only part of the spectrum of mental faculties and do not reveal what may be the real strength of the disadvantaged child - the ability for associative learning [...] as the traditional methods of classroom teaching were developed in sections of the population who had a predominantly medium-sized example of talent, they put greater emphasis on cognitive than on associative learning [...] to the great disadvantage of many children, whose learning style is predominantly associative. Many of the basic skills can be acquired by a variety of means, and a lesson scheme that overly emphasizes a single style of learning will have poor results in all of the children to whom that pattern is inappropriate. "

- Arthur Jensen : in Hans Jürgen Eysenck "The Inequality of People"

In connection with 'middle class-specific bias factors' it was pointed out that a middle class bias in intelligence tests could also mean 'relevance and not bias'. The tests are intended to measure what is necessary for success in Western society, and that society is primarily oriented towards the interests of an urban middle class. Verbal skills and the skills to solve abstract problems - such as those shown in intelligence tests - would prove to be just what industry, technology and business required in an urban society. That is why it was demanded that one should not change the tests themselves, but rather the social conditions that would lead to low test performance.

Try shift-neutral and language-free tests

As early as the 1950s, efforts were made to develop so-called “culture-free” tests that should less discriminate against lower-class children. Davis and Eels constructed and standardized a test that required thought processes about everyday situations. The language was not academic and oriented more towards the spoken word than the written language. The test looked like a comic and was conducted like a game. However, the intended goal was not achieved. Middle-class children still got the better results. The test did not correlate as strongly with school performance as other intelligence tests and was therefore discarded.

Cultural influences

Conventional intelligence tests, which are empirically well verified, show differences between black and white Americans, which can be represented as two overlapping normal distributions with different expected values . There is bitter argument about whether these differences are essentially culturally shaped or whether they reflect innate differences, and whether the measured variable intelligence quotient is a meaningful criterion for differentiating between ethnicities or other groups of people.

It was criticized that specific skills of ethnic minorities such as Afro-Americans or German-Turks were generally overlooked. John R. Anderson states:

“The concept of intelligence in particular must be viewed in relation to the respective culture. What is considered intelligent in one culture can be judged very differently in another. For example, the Kpelle , an African cultural community, consider the way in which specimens are categorized in Western culture (on which some items in intelligence tests are based) to be absurd. Sternberg (personal communication) notes that in some cultures not even a word for intelligence exists. However, the fact remains that intelligence tests can predict performance in our (western) schools. It is an extremely difficult question to judge which outweighs: that intelligence tests are a valuable service in assigning students or that they merely enforce arbitrary cultural beliefs. "

- "Cognitive Psychology"

In a systematic review , the cognitive psychologists Fons van de Vijver and Norbert K. Tanzer compiled three types of distortion effects that should be taken into account when interpreting intercultural differences in standardized tests. A construct distortion occurs when the cultural definitions of the construct are incomplete. For example, the non-Western definition of intelligence is often broader and includes social skills , while the conception of intelligence in Western cultures is primarily based on academic skills, which are recorded in IQ tests. A methodological bias exists if the cultural samples to be compared do not match in all relevant criteria , if the test persons are differently familiar with the test conditions (e.g. small spatial distance between the test leader and the test person) and test instruments (e.g. computer-aided tests compared to paper-and-pencil tests) and when the behavior and presence of the test leader changes the respondents' response behavior. Finally, item bias occurs when the question or task has been poorly translated, is inappropriate or unfamiliar for certain cultures, and is influenced by certain culture-specific factors (e.g. when a term has connotations).

The so - called culture - free tests also disadvantage people from minority groups. It has been criticized that these tests require “familiarity with Western logic”. For example, knowledge of the principle of symmetry , the principle of clockwise movement, laws of perspective mapping, knowledge of the principle of congruence and other Euclidean axioms are often required in intelligence tests. Critics fear that "[t] he principles of occidental logic [...] therefore also determine those intelligence tasks designed (by members of the white middle class) that manage without the use of verbal skills."

Questions that violate subculture religious taboos can be unfair. In the test construction (although efforts are being made today) different religious values ​​are not always taken into account. This applies, for example, to the task in which the children have to choose from a series of animals (elephant, cow, goose, pig, chicken) the one that does not match the others. Non-Muslim German children usually choose the elephant, as this is the only animal in Germany that is not a pet. Muslim German children, on the other hand, mostly choose pigs - since, unlike other animals, they are considered unclean.

Experiments with an extended intelligence model

Robert Sternberg was of the opinion that success requires more than a high IQ. He proposed an intelligence model with the following factors:

• 1. Analytical intelligence ( IQ , measurement with intelligence tests )
• 2. Creative intelligence (ability to think creatively, typical task in a test for creative intelligence: "Find as many words as possible that rhyme with butter. You have five minutes")
• 3. Practical intelligence (everyday mental performance, "Street Smarts", typical task in a test for practical intelligence: "How would you change the tires of a car?")

With support from the College Board , Sternberg and coworkers have developed tests to measure creative and practical intelligence. Initial results suggest that these tests, in combination with IQ tests, provide an even better prediction of college grades than IQ tests alone - and this with far smaller differences between the ethnic groups than with pure IQ tests.

Measurement of intelligence

Implementation objectivity

The implementation objectivity concerns the standardization of psychological tests. In order to ensure comparability between the results of the same test, it is necessary to define exactly how the test is to be carried out. In the case of intelligence tests, for example, the extent to which the test leader is allowed to provide assistance plays a role so that disadvantages or preferences cannot arise. This makes it necessary to precisely define the implementation. In some cases, the exact wording of the instructions is specified, from which one must not deviate.

Overachievement and underachievement

As Overachiever ( "About Leister") refers to persons who reach the school performance that are better than would be expected on the measured level of intelligence. In the opposite case, in which the school performance is worse than expected from the level of intelligence, the person is called an underachiever . FE Weinert speaks of school achievement surplus or school achievement deficit - thus of cases of "unexpected" school achievement. The main causes are seen in the non-intellectual factors (motivation, especially achievement motivation).

Lewis Madison Terman was the director and founder of the Terman Study, one of the largest long-term studies in the history of psychology. The study was about the research of giftedness . Terman wrote to California teachers asking him to name the most gifted and the second most gifted child in the class. Two boys named Luis Walter Alvarez and William Bradford Shockley were proposed for the study. However, both had to be rejected because IQ values ​​were too low. Shockley was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956, together with Walter H. Brattain and John Bardeen, “for their research on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect” . Alvarez received the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his decisive contribution to elementary particle physics , in particular his discovery of a large number of resonance states , made possible by his development of techniques for the hydrogen bubble chamber and in data analysis" . Alvarez improved Donald Glaser's bubble chamber (liquid hydrogen instead of ether, building ever larger and more sophisticated chambers) and was primarily responsible for the development of fast data acquisition electronics, which made the discovery of these very short-lived particles possible in the first place. By contrast, not a single one of Terman's gifted people was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Intelligence and creative accomplishments

An above-average IQ is sufficient to be able to produce creative achievements in science. Intellectual giftedness is not necessary for this. As various studies show, exceptionally creative architects, mathematicians, scientists and engineers do not differ in their IQ from their less creative colleagues. However, there are differences with regard to other personality dimensions that are not measured by the IQ test.

Normal distribution assumption of intelligence

Bell curve of intelligence: The hatched areas mark the limits of the intervals and which are constructed using the standard deviation . ${\displaystyle \mu \pm \sigma ,\mu \pm 2\sigma }$ ${\displaystyle \mu \pm 3\sigma }$

Intelligence is assumed to be normally distributed (bell curve). This normal form of distribution can only be achieved with the appropriate selection of tasks and test construction. Mienert and Pitcher explain:

“A test is changed during development until a normal distribution of the values ​​is achieved. The fact that intelligence itself is actually normally distributed can neither be proven nor refuted. Intelligence is a construct , and the tests are designed so that the results fit that construct. "

- Mienert and Pitcher

The normal distribution is therefore an arbitrary criterion that a “good” intelligence test must meet. This assumption of normal distribution goes back to Francis Galton . This assumed that talent in a society (similar to biological characteristics, such as body size) is normally distributed. Just as there are many medium-sized people in a society and few very small and few very large, Galton assumed that there were many mediocre people in a society, but few very talented and few very untalented. This assumption was adopted by Galton's students, and when the first intelligence tests were finally constructed, this assumption was also made, which continues to play a role in intelligence test construction to this day. Critics lament the biologism of this assumption.

However, it should be mentioned that the normal distribution has a special position in statistics. This special importance of the normal distribution is based, among other things, on the central limit theorem , according to which distributions that arise from the superposition of a large number of independent influences are asymptotically normally distributed. Since it must be assumed that an even greater number of independent influences are effective for intelligence than for body height or weight, the current state of research considers it justified to construct intelligence tests in such a way that a normal distribution results.

Exercise effects

With regular practice, the tasks of intelligence tests can be trained and thus achieve a better result than unprepared people would achieve. These training and learning effects are, however, of a relatively small extent and rather show the need to carry out psychological diagnostics professionally (i.e. standardized instruction, ensuring that the task is understood, sample tasks). Intelligence tests that are limited to a few tasks are more likely to be affected by the effects of the exercise than intelligence tests with extensive tasks, since in the latter case the answers are difficult or impossible to memorize.

An example of a less extensive intelligence test is the CFT-20-R , in which an exercise effect of 5 to 6 IQ points or after two weeks 8 to 9 IQ points can be expected if the test is repeated. If you consider the vocabulary test and the number sequence test (i.e. specific supplementary tests of the CFT 20-R with a focus on crystalline intelligence ), there are no statistically significant increases in performance after two to four months, so that the effects of practice can almost be ruled out.

Exercise or learning effects can generally be avoided by using parallel tests for the second measurement. Parallel tests are characterized by the fact that, in the simplest case, the order of the tasks is reversed or different tasks that are equivalent in terms of cognitive requirements are used. Another possibility is computer-based diagnostics, in which one of several possible questions is selected from a large pool of questions for each task. This means that the respective tests differ at each point in time, so that learning effects can be reduced or even excluded.

Correlations between different intelligence tests

The correlations between different intelligence tests are high, but often not as high as one would expect for tests with the same measurement object. For a German sample, the correlations of the CFT 20 with other intelligence tests (e.g. PSB, HAWIK, CPM, WIP) are on average r = 0.64 and range from r = 0.57 to r = 0.73.

This can possibly be traced back to the fact that intelligence tests are compared with each other that measure different facets of intelligence (e.g. Raven's matrix test and a number connection test). If, however, extensive, i.e. content-valid, intelligence tests are compared with one another, very high, mostly perfect latent (i.e. measurement error-adjusted) correlations closer to 1.00 are found.

Influence of stereotypes

Another point of criticism relates to the concept of the threat of stereotypes in performance in tests, which may also be effective in intelligence tests. Knowledge of an allegedly reduced performance of one's own social group can trigger additional stress or discouragement during tests and thus actually lead to underperformance ( self-fulfilling prophecy ).

Limited definition

It has been pointed out on several occasions that there are human abilities that are not measured by the traditional IQ test. But these can play an important role in a person's life. A high IQ may favor a happy resume; however, other abilities and skills are also beneficial or even required for this.

Emotional intelligence

Researchers have begun to develop measuring instruments which they hope to reliable ( reliable ) and true ( valid result) Dimensions of the EQ. One of these measuring instruments is the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale. Here, the test subjects are asked to propose solutions for a number of emotion-related tasks. For example, ask them to identify the emotion that a particular situation would evoke. The EQ values correlated only moderately with the IQ values ​​in both adolescents and adults .

Multiple intelligences

→ Main article : Theory of multiple intelligences

The psychologist and educationalist Howard Gardner criticized that there are many things that the IQ does not capture and explain. Gardner claimed the existence of numerous intelligences that would not be measured by standard intelligence tests. However, empirical evidence of such intelligences was not found, and Gardner's concept could therefore not gain acceptance in psychology.

Historical reference to eugenics

This article or the following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.

In Germany during the Nazi era, supposedly imbecile people were forcibly sterilized or sometimes even murdered. But intelligence tests were also abused in Great Britain , Switzerland , Canada , Scandinavia (Sweden and Finland) and the USA , among other things, to justify forced sterilization of supposedly mentally ill people. Children who were often not older than 14 years were sterilized. This was partly continued into the 1980s (cf. eugenics after 1945 ).

Philosophical Criticism

Adorno

Theodor W. Adorno formulated a fundamental criticism of the concept of intelligence in Article IQ (No. 126) of his Minima Moralia (written 1946/47; published 1951). Behaviors are called “intelligent” which are appropriate to the respective “most advanced level of technical development”, even in areas in which this is not necessary at all. Thinking is voluntarily limited to problem solving and thereby loses its autonomy . "Intelligence is a moral category."

Bourdieu

The sociologist and social philosopher Pierre Bourdieu criticized the term intelligence as classical :

“The classification by the school is legitimate and scientifically proven social discrimination. Here you can also find psychology, with its active support of the functioning of the school system from the start. The appearance of intelligence tests such as the Binet-Simon test is related to the fact that, thanks to compulsory schooling, pupils came into the school system who did not know what to do with this school system because they were not 'predisposed', not 'gifted', that is, not endowed by their family milieu with those predispositions which are the prerequisites for the normal functioning of the school system: cultural capital and good will in relation to school leaving certificates. These tests, which measure the social predispositions required of the school, are precisely there to legitimize in advance those school verdicts by which they are legitimized; hence their informative value in relation to school success. "

- Pierre Bourdieu : Social Issues

Bourdieu advises not to even get involved with the problem of the biological basis of intelligence, but to investigate the problem of what the social conditions are for the occurrence of such a question and to examine the associated “racism of intelligence” or “class racism” .

Huisken

The Marxist journalist Freerk Huisken argued, in his opinion following Hegel, that the belief that one can measure intelligence is based on a mistake: One suspects that a general ability for intelligent performance is expressed in certain measurable test performances. This presupposes a tautological division of the colloquial term intelligence into a self-contained cause-effect relationship: one doubles intelligent performances in their expression ( certain measurable test performances) and the ability to do so on these utterances - expressed in the IQ value. Through this arbitrary decomposition of intelligence into “ability and expression of the same”, the carefully thought-out criteria for the construct of intelligence claimed by the test become a measuring instrument for intelligence. In this respect, the famous statement that intelligence is what the IQ test measures applies to every intelligence measurement and therefore only allows intelligence to become true as an abstract object under the hand. This methodically opened the doors of science to the ideological use of intelligence. Certain intelligent achievements are not abstractly comparable in terms of content - unless the will to find abstract intelligence theoretically produces exactly what one wants to measure out of certain practical (ideological) interests (e.g. for the fine control of selection ).

Gould

→ Main article: The Mismeasure of Man

A comprehensive critique of the existing intelligence concept practiced the paleontologist and Harvard -Professor Stephen Jay Gould in his 1981 book, The Mismeasure of Man (German: The Mismeasure of Man ).

Basically, Gould opposes the assumption that social and economic differences between population groups result from inherited characteristics. With regard to intelligence in particular, he contradicts the thesis of a certain, innate cognitive capacity. He tries to show that the attempt to measure intelligence as a uniform quantity is doomed to failure from the start, since the intelligence measured is an indiscriminate combination of cognitive abilities. Gould takes a very clear position in the discussion about the causes of intelligence.

According to the current state of science ( Communis Opinio ) it is assumed today - contrary to Gould's view - that intelligence contains an essential hereditary component.

literature

• Elsbeth Stern , Aljoscha Neubauer : Intelligence - Great Differences and Their Consequences , Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Munich 2013, ISBN 978-3-641-08050-1 .
• John Maltby, Liz Day, Ann Macaskill: Differential Psychology, Personality and Intelligence , Pearson Studies, Munich 2011., ISBN 978-3-86894-050-3 .
• Howard Gardner : Farewell to IQ - The Framework Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2001. ISBN 978-3-608-93158-7 .
• Daniel Goleman : Emotional Intelligence. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich 1996. ISBN 3-446-18526-7 .
• Elaine Mensh, Harry Mensh: The IQ Mythology: Class, Race, Gender, and Inequality . Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale 1991, ISBN 0-8093-1666-8 .

Web links

• The IQ test - completely overrated or really important? , Bayerischer Rundfunk - Wissen, June 3, 2016
• Cordula Sailer: What are IQ tests good for? , in: Süddeutsche Zeitung, June 2, 2010.
• Matthias Becker: Are people getting smarter - or just more intelligent?
• Gerianne de Klerk: Cross-cultural testing. ( Memento of March 12, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) On the website of the International Test Commission .
• Nassim Nicholas Taleb: IQ is largely a pseudoscientific swindle , Medium.com , January 2, 2019.

Individual evidence

1. ^ Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo: Psychologie , 18th, updated edition, Pearson, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8273-7275-8 , pp. 344-353.
2. ^ Pierre Bourdieu : Sociological questions . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1993, ISBN 3-518-11872-2 , pp. 254f.
3. ↑ Jensen, quoted from: Eysenck, Hans Jürgen: Die inequality of people . List, Munich 1975, ISBN 3-471-66579-X , p. 244.
4. ↑ Eysenck, Hans Jürgen: The inequality of people . List, Munich 1975, ISBN 3-471-66579-X , p. 245.
5. ↑ Jensen, quoted from: Eysenck, Hans Jürgen: Die inequality of people . List, Munich 1975, ISBN 3-471-66579-X , p. 245.
6. ^ Gage / Berliner: Educational Psychology. Beltz Psychologie Verlags Union, Weinheim. 1996; Pp. 89-90.
7. ↑ Lois Wladis Hoffman, Martin L. Hoffman: Review of Child Development Research , Russell Sage Foundation, New York 1966, ISBN 978-1-61044-648-8 , p. 287.
8. ↑ Linda Gottfredson: Social Consequences (PDF file; 357 kB).
9. ↑ John R. Anderson (2007): Cognitive Psychology. 6th edition. German edition edited by Joachim Funke , translated from English by Guido Plata. Berlin / Heidelberg: spectrum academic publishing house. ISBN 978-3-8274-1743-5 ; Pp. 517/518
10. ^ F van de Vijver, NK Tanzer: Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: an overview (PDF; 273 kB). In: European Review of Applied Psychology . 54, No. 2, 2004, pp. 119-135. doi: 10.1016 / j.erap.2003.12.004 .
11. ^ Anita Woolfolk (2008): Educational Psychology. 10th edition - revised and translated by Prof. Dr. Ute Schönpflug . Pearson study. ISBN 978-3-8273-7279-6 ; P. 149 (box).
12. ^ Christiane Schmerl: Socialization and personality: central examples for the sociogenesis of human behavior , Enke Verlag, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 978-3-432-90051-3 , p. 76.
13. ^ Anette Leonhardt and Frank B. Wember: Basic questions of special education . 2003. Beltz Verlag; P. 173.
14. ↑ David G. Myers : Psychologie , Springer, Heidelberg 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-79032-7 , p. 409.
15. ↑ Markus Bühner : Introduction to the test and questionnaire construction . Pearson Deutschland GmbH, 2011, ISBN 978-3-86894-033-6 , p. 59 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
16. ↑ Weinert, F: Pupil personality and school performance , in: Karlheinz Ingenkamp (Ed.): Schulkonflikt and Schülerhilfe , Beltz, Weinheim 1965, pp. 19–31.
17. ↑ Michael Kemmer: Giftedness: Measurement methods and information sources for the identification of gifted underachievers , Diplomica Verlag, Hamburg 2015, ISBN 978-3-95934-628-3 , pp. 12-19.
18. ↑ Mitchell Leslie. "Lewis Terman". Stanford Magazine: Feature Story: July / August 2000.
19. ^ David G. Myers: Psychology. 2008. Worth Publishers; P. 411.
20. ^ David G. Myers: Psychology. 2008. Worth Publishers; P. 412.
21. ↑ Mienert, Malte; Pitcher, Sabine. 2011. Educational Psychology - Theory and Practice of Lifelong Learning - Textbook. VS Verlag. P. 111.
22. ^ Christiane Schmerl: Socialization and Personality: Central Examples for the Sociogenesis of Human Behavior , Enke Verlag, Stuttgart 1978, ISBN 978-3-432-90051-3 , pp. 61 and 82.
23. ↑ Elsbeth Stern , Roland Grabner : The research of human intelligence , in: Lieselotte Ahnert (Ed.): Theorien in der Entwicklungspsychologie , Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2013, pp. 174–197, ISBN 978-3-642-34805-1 , P. 178, PDF (accessed October 4, 2017).
24. ^ White, RH (2006). CFT 20-R. Basic intelligence test scale 2 - revision. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
25. ^ White, RH (2007). WS / ZF-R. Vocabulary test and number sequence test - revision - supplementary test to the CFT 20-R. Manual. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
26. ↑ Weiss, RH: Grundintelligenztest Skala 2 (CFT 20) with vocabulary test (WS) and number sequence test (ZF) - 4th edition, see also: https://www.testzentrale.de/shop/grundintelligenztest-skala-2-revision- cft-20-r-with-vocabulary-test-and-number-sequence-test-revision-ws-zf-r.html .
27. ↑ Valerius, S., & Sparfeldt, JR (2014). Consistent g- as well as consistent verbal, numerical and figural factors in nested factor models? Confirmatory factor analyzes using three test batteries. Intelligence, 44, 120-133.
28. ↑ Johnson, W., Nijenhuis, J. te, & Bouchard, TJ (2008). Still just 1 g: Consistent results from five test batteries. Intelligence, 36 (1), 81-95.
29. ↑ Johnson, W., Bouchard, TJ, Krueger, RF, McGue, M., & Gottesman, II (2004). Just one g: consistent results from three test batteries. Intelligence, 32 (1), 95-107.
30. ^ Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo: Psychologie , 18th, updated edition, Pearson, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8273-7275-8 , pp. 351f.
31. ↑ Richard J. Gerrig, Philip G. Zimbardo: Psychologie , 18th, updated edition, Pearson, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-8273-7275-8 , pp. 342-344.
32. ↑ Theodor W. Adorno : Minima Moralia , article Wishful Thinking (No. 127).
33. ^ Pierre Bourdieu: Sociological questions . edition suhrkamp 1993, ISBN 3-518-11872-2 , p. 254 f.
34. ↑ GWFHegel, Logic II, Kraft und Äußerung, pp. 172–179.
35. ↑ Huisken, Freerk : The science of education. Introduction to the fundamentals of pedagogy. Hamburg 1991, pp. 107-120.
36. ↑ Stephen Jay Gould: The wrongly measured man . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 1983, ISBN 3-518-28183-6 .