Coins from the Jewish War
The coins minted during the Jewish War (66 to 70 AD) show symbols and slogans of the rebels and are therefore of particular importance for their self-image. The minting of silver coins was a declaration of independence from the Roman Empire , because only the emperor had the right to issue silver coins . These newly introduced coins, which were put into circulation in large numbers, are a unique feature of the Jewish uprising among the various uprisings of subject peoples against Roman rule. They were coins that "instead of the offensive image of the emperor bore the sacred objects of cult and celebration, perhaps even the" chalice of redemption "according to Ps 116 : 13 LUT and whose inscription, instead of the divinity of the emperor, proclaimed the redemption of Israel."
Jerusalem Mint
The fact that minting ceased with the fall of Jerusalem in 70 suggests that Jerusalem was the most important mint .
When the Zealots control of the Jerusalem Temple had gained, they possessed with it over the temple treasury , which in Tyrian shekels collected temple tax . Despite their pagan symbolism, these coins had become the temple's currency because of their silver content of over 94% and, as the hoard finds show, they were also present in everyday life in the city of Jerusalem.
It is not known which of the rival parties controlled the minting of new coins. None of the Jewish military leaders had their names struck on these coins. While the minting of the coins could have taken place anywhere in the city, both the silver to be minted and the amount of silver coins had to be kept safe. Both were guaranteed in the temple. This means that the imprint was supported, if not organized, by priests . Typical of the Jerusalem shekel is a thick planar with an outwardly curved edge. The silver content of the new coins is unusually high (98%) and hardly differs between shekels and half-shekels. This constant high silver content suggests that it was the temple silver, the Tyrian shekel, but also other silver objects in the temple treasure, which were melted down and minted into shekels and half-shekels. Josephus remarks several times that there was a lot of money in circulation in the besieged city; this can be interpreted as inflation, triggered by the spending of the temple treasure.
The increasingly difficult situation of the rebels and the civil war-like conditions in Jerusalem had no noticeable effects on the quality of the coinage.
Gamala Mint
In the ancient city of Gamala (now Gamla National Park ), seven bronze coins were found during excavations, which differ from the Jerusalem coins. Two more copies have since become known.
The coin dies are apparently not the work of experienced craftsmen. The quality of the coinage is correspondingly poor compared to the Jerusalem products. This is particularly evident in the transcription; the die cutter does not seem to have been familiar with the shape of the letters.
The background to this local character is probably a siege of Gamala; Yaakov Meshorer is thinking here of the siege of the city by the Roman army under Vespasian , which according to Flavius Josephus lasted a month and ended in Tishri in 67 with the fall of Gamalas. That would have been a symbolic action to raise morale. According to Yoav Farhi, however, the coins were minted during the previous seven-month siege of Gamala by the troops of King Agrippa II (which was directly followed by the Roman siege). This allows him to explain the clear signs of use on the coins.
The obverse shows the motif of the chalice known from the Jerusalem shekels - Jerusalem coins probably came to Gamala and served as a template. The transcription is usually read as לגאלת "for salvation"; Yoav Farhi suggests reading בגמלא instead. The closest translation would be "in Gamala"; but since the letter ב also stands for the number 2, the inscription can be interpreted as: "Gamala, (year) 2". Various readings have been suggested for the inscription on the reverse, but the letters are so poorly executed that their interpretation remains uncertain.
Motives and slogans
The iconography of the coins follows two types:
- Jerusalem temple, cult, festivals;
- Agricultural symbols.
Silver coins
During the five years of the war, a large number of silver shekel and half-shekel coins were minted in Jerusalem. There are 1220 silver coins known (885 shekels and 335 half shekels). The silver coins recorded in the Menorah Coin Project (see web links) are distributed over the years of the new era after which they are dated as follows:
| inscription | translation | Dating | frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| א | "(Year) 1" | 66/67 AD | 19.45% |
| ש ב | "Year 2" | A.D. 67/68 | 41.64% |
| ש ג | "Year 3" | A.D. 67/68 | 33.42% |
| ש ד | "Year 4" | AD 69/70 | 4.24% |
| ש ה | "Year 5" | 70 AD (only a few months) | 1.24% |
As far as known, 515 different dies were used for this: 85 for the front ( obverse ) and 430 for the back ( lapel ).
The coins show on the obverse a chalice with a pearl rim and the Paleo-Hebrew inscription: שקל ישראל Shekel Yisrael "Shekel Israel" and on the reverse a stick with three pomegranate blossoms and the inscription: ירושלים הקדושה Jeruschalajim haKedoscha "Holy Jerusalem". (The Tyrian shekel, on the other hand, bore the inscription: “Tire, the holy and inviolable”.) The year of issue is indicated above the chalice, the war years are counted from 1 (Alef, א) to 5 (He, ה). The W-shaped letter usually attached next to it is the letter Schin ש, abbreviation for שנה schana , "year".
- The goblet has a wide rim that makes it unsuitable for drinking. He is identified with the golden display vessel in which the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, or the flour made from it, was offered in the temple during the Shavuot festival . This interpretation was first suggested by Paul Romanoff in 1942. Yaakov Meshorer agreed with this interpretation and considered that this ritual vessel was carried along with the showbread table on the triumphal procession of Titus and can be seen on a relief of the Arch of Titus - for reasons of perspective, the artist did not depict the base of the vessel. A minority of researchers, including Adolf Reifenberg , see it as the “chalice of salvation” ( Ps 116 : 13-14 LUT ).
- The staff with flowers is identified by Yoav Farhi as the staff of the high priest , which was kept in the Jerusalem temple, so as an artifact and not as a stylized representation of a branch with flowers.
Non-ferrous metal coins
In the 2nd, 3rd and 4th year the Jerusalem mint also minted bronze coins. The small bronze coin ( Pruta ) shows an amphora and the year on the obverse , a vine leaf hanging from a vine on the reverse and the paleo-Hebrew inscription חרות ציון Cherut Zion "Zion's freedom."
Cherut (חרות), the Hebrew term for "freedom", is first found on these coins from the Jewish War and then much more frequently on coins from the Bar Kochba uprising.
In the fourth year of the uprising in Jerusalem, half and quarter shekel were minted from non-ferrous metal, the silver treasure of the temple may have been exhausted.
The half-shekels show a date palm on the front between two baskets full of dates and the inscription לגאלת ציון LeGeulat Zion "for the redemption of Zion." The motif on the back is an etrog fruit between two bouquets of lulas , plus the year and the name chatzi , "half".
The quarter shekel show the etrog fruit with the inscription לגאלת ציון LeGeulat Zion "for the redemption of Zion" on the front. On the back are two lulav bouquets and the year, plus the designation reva, "quarter". Lulav and Etrog refer to the festival of Sukkot .
In addition, in the fourth year of the war there is a small bronze coin without a value, which is known as an eighth. The goblet known from the shekel coins is depicted on the obverse and a lulav between two etrog fruits on the reverse.
All the motifs appearing on the bronze coins (amphora, vine leaves, palm, basket with fruit, etrog and lulav) are common in ancient Jewish iconography and can be found, for example, on the mosaic floors of late ancient synagogues.
If one wants to give a symbolic meaning to the motif of the vine leaf hanging down from a vine, one should think of the golden vine, a work of art that, according to Flavius Josephus, adorned the entrance to the inner temple house. In the Mishnah tract of Middot it is described as follows:
“A golden vine was over the entrance to the temple house, supported by supports. Anyone who vowed a leaf, a berry or a grape as a voluntary sacrifice brought it and hung it on it. "
The appearance of the new slogan “for the redemption of Zion” as inscription on the bronze half and quarter shekels coincides with the time when Shimon bar Giora came to power in Jerusalem. Since at the same time the shape of the letters א Alef, ו Waw and den Zade on the coins of the year 4 differs from earlier coins and there are hoard finds that only contain coins from the year 4, it is considered whether one of the fighting Zealot groups minted its own bronze coins , and Shimon bar Giora's faction is the most likely candidate for this too. According to Martin Hengel , however, “redemption” was not associated with any other program than “freedom”; the bar Kochba coins showed that both terms were "almost identical". The three central concepts of freedom, redemption and holiness are assigned to the city of Jerusalem with the temple as its center. This enabled the Zealots to tie in with prophetic traditions, for example Joel 4.17 LUT
Coins with a known location
Archaeological excavations (excluding hoards)
Robert Deutsch evaluated 93 excavations, which yielded a total of 3492 coins, of which only 17 were silver coins, the rest bronze coins. Most of the coins were discovered in the city of Jerusalem as well as in Masada. Most of these coins were minted in the second year of the uprising; the coins of the third year come mainly from Jerusalem, Herodium , Machaerus and Masada . This picture is confirmed for the coins of the fourth year (Jerusalem, Masada, Herodium). As a result, the insurgent-controlled area had already melted significantly in the third year and the Romans controlled most of the country in the fourth year.
Hoard finds
So far, no hoard finds are known that contained both silver and bronze coins. Archaeologists found deposits of silver coins from year 4 only in Jerusalem and Masada; Deposits of bronze coins from the fourth year of the uprising were discovered in Jerusalem, Herodium and Ein Mazrouk.
The oldest hoard was made in Bir Zait and published in 1942 by Eleazar Sukenik ; it contained 49 Tyrian shekels and five Jerusalem coins from years 1 to 3.
A 9 cm high bronze pyxis with originally around 40 silver coins, twelve of which are still present, is on display in the Israel Museum. These are nine Tyrian shekels and three Jerusalem shekels ( final coin : year 2). The circumstances of the find are unclear; the find is said to come from the area of Siloam and was offered at the antique market in 1950.
During the excavation of Masada in 1965, Yigael Yadin found a hoard of 19 silver coins in the north wall ( casemate 1939) near the synagogue, including 17 Jerusalem shekels, three of which were minted in the year 5. They were found scattered on the ground and possibly covered in rubble so that they were not taken by legionnaires. The minting of two Tyrian coins (shekel and half shekel) in this hoard had been made illegible; they were kept because of their material value. It is noteworthy that it was possible to get from Jerusalem to Masada during the Roman siege and to bring 5 shekel minted in the year. The casemates served as living space for many Zealot families.
In 1969, during the excavation of Herodium, 19 bronze coins from the fourth year of the uprising were found in an entrance area under a layer of ash. The find was not finally published, the whereabouts of the coins are unknown.
In 1975 Benjamin Mazar found 34 bronze coins (Hoard A) deposited during the Jewish War in a vaulted room from Herodian times near the Robinson Arch in Jerusalem, together with a saucepan and a mug. Another coin hiding place (Hoard B) was found between the Herodian street, which runs along the temple wall, and the vaulted room, which contained 13 bronze coins, including two provincial coins of Claudius . These coins are also poorly preserved; all have been damaged by fire making it difficult to identify.
In 2009, Boaz Zissu's team found various dumps in a karst cave in Nahal Hameʽara west of Jerusalem (Te'omim Cave), including a coin hoard from the Bar Kochba uprising that contained a silver shekel from the Jewish War.
During rescue excavations in connection with the expansion of the motorway between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, a vessel with 114 bronze coins was found in a previously unknown ancient Jewish village near Ein Mazrouk . The hiding place was in a corner or niche of a building and was built a few months before the Roman siege of Jerusalem. According to the excavators Pablo Betzer and Eyal Marco from the Israel Antiquities Authority , it was small change that, together, might have been worth a silver coin.
In early 2018, during the Ophel excavation, Eilat Mazar's team found a 7 × 14 m cave in which some residents of Jerusalem had sought refuge in the final stages of the fighting for the city. In addition to ceramic shards, the archaeologists found a hoard of bronze coins, which also contained coins from the year 4.
reception
Nachmanides
In 1268, the Jewish scholar and Bible interpreter Nachmanides met elders of the local community in Akko . They showed him silver coins, which he described in his Torah commentary: “On one side there was a kind of stick with almond blossoms and on the other a bowl. They explained that this was the almond blossom stick of the high priest Aaron and on the other side a portion of the manna with which the children of Israel were fed in the desert. ”Both interpretations refer to the Torah:
- Aaron's green staff is to be kept, Num 17.25 LUT .
- A vessel with manna is to be kept, Ex 16,33 LUT .
Humanistic authors
See also: Görlitzer Shekel
The polymath Guillaume Postel traveled to the Holy Land in 1536 together with the French ambassador Gabriel d'Aramon. He saw several silver shekels in Akko and two in Jerusalem. In 1538, Postel published the earliest known drawing of a shekel, the inscription of which he could read, together with a table of paleo-Hebrew letters. In De Foenicum litteris in 1552 he wrote that while visiting the ruins of Jerusalem he saw many bronze shekels , but also some silver and even gold specimens. On all coins the manna vessel was depicted on the obverse and Aaron's staff on the reverse.
The Jewish humanist Azaria dei Rossi published a similar drawing of the front and back of a shekel in the work Meor Enajim , published in Mantua in 1573 . Both authors were primarily interested in the font.
Benito Arias Montano had a more numismatic approach . He did research in the Talmud on Jewish weights and measures and was familiar with Nachmanides' description of a silver shekel. During the Council of Trent he received various antique gold coins from an archbishop for testing, as well as a silver coin that corresponded to Nachmanides' description. Montano examined them carefully. In his work Antiquitatum Iudaicarum libri IX , published in Leiden in 1593, there is an exact reproduction not only of the letters, but also of the motifs on the front and back.
Modern Israeli coins
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Motifs from coins from the Jewish War, as well as motifs from coins from the Bar Kochba uprising , were used more often in the design of coins from the State of Israel. For example, the one- shekel piece that was issued from 1980 to 1985 showed the motif of the chalice.
The current 10 NIS coin of the Israeli Central Bank shows the motif of the date palm between two baskets with the inscription לגאלת ציון (in Paleo-Hebrew script and in square script ): "For the redemption of Zion." The design of the coin was created by Reuven Nutels February 1995.
Web links
- Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien : Coin and Power in Ancient Israel (Digital Exhibition Catalog)
- The Handbook of Biblical Numismatics: The First Revolt
- Database: Menorah Coin Project
literature
- Donald T. Ariel: Identifying the Mint, Minters and Meanings of the First Jewish Revolt Coins . In: Mladen Popović (Ed.): The Jewish Revolt Against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives . Brill, Leiden 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-21668-6 . Pp. 373-398.
- Robert Deutsch: Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt against Rome: Iconography, Minting Authority, Metallurgy . In: Mladen Popović (Ed.): The Jewish Revolt Against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives . Brill, Leiden 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-21668-6 . Pp. 361-372.
- Robert German: The Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt, 66-73 C. E .
- Yoav Farhi: The Bronze Coins minted at Gamala Reconsidered . In: Israel Numismatic Journal 15 (2006) pp. 69-76.
- Haim Gitler: Roman Coinage of Palestine . In: William E. Metcalf (Ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage . Oxford 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-530574-6 . Pp. 485-498.
- Martin Hengel: The Zealots. Studies on the Jewish freedom movement in the period from Herod I to 70 AD ( Scientific studies on the New Testament , 283) 3rd edition ed. by Roland Deines and Claus-Jürgen Thornton, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-16-150776-2 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Martin Hengel: The Zealots . S. 197 .
- ^ A b Robert Deutsch: Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 361 .
- ^ A b Donald T. Ariel: Identifying the Mint . S. 386 .
- ^ Robert Deutsch: Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 371 .
- ^ A b Ancient Jewish Coins Related to the Works of Josephus. Retrieved April 27, 2018 .
- ↑ a b c Yoav Farhi: The Bronze Coins . S. 74 .
- ^ A b Robert Deutsch: Thre Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 3 .
- ^ A b c Robert Deutsch: Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 363 .
- ^ Haim Gitler: Roman Coinage of Palestine . S. 489 .
- ↑ Martin Hengel: The Zealots . S. 120 .
- ↑ The Mishnah . Wiesbaden 2005, p. 761-762 .
- ^ Robert Deutsch: Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 367-368 .
- ↑ Martin Hengel: The Zealots . S. 122 .
- ^ Robert Deutsch: The Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 5 .
- ↑ a b c Amanda Borschel-Dan: Rare trove of bronze Jewish Revolt coins unearthed near Temple Mount. In: The Times of Israel. March 26, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2018 .
- ↑ Eleazar Sukenik: The Date of the “Thick Shekels” . In: Kedem: Studies in Jewish Archeology . tape 1 , 1942, p. 12-19 .
- ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art (ed.): Treasures of the Holy Land: Ancient Art from the Israel Museum . New York 1986, p. 227 .
- ↑ ID 7698th In: Coin hoards of the Roman Empire. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Roman Economy Project, accessed April 23, 2018 .
- ↑ ID 8044th In: Coin hoards of the Roman Empire. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Roman Economy Project, accessed April 23, 2018 .
- ↑ ID 7695th In: Coin hoards of the Roman Empire. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Roman Economy Project, accessed April 23, 2018 .
- ↑ ID 7696. In: Coin hoards of the Roman Empire. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford Roman Economy Project, accessed April 23, 2018 .
- ↑ David Hendin: Israel Numismatic Report: Important Finds, Altruistic reporting, and the Law. In: The Ancient Near East Today. May 2017, accessed on 23 April 2018 .
- ^ Ran Shapira: Hoard of Bronze Coins From Jewish Revolt Found Near Jerusalem. In: Haaretz. August 17, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2018 .
- ^ Robert Deutsch: Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt . S. 362 .
- ^ Marion L. Kuntz: Guillaume Postel: Prophet of the Restitution of All Things. His Life and Thought . Dordrecht 1981, p. 94 .
- ↑ On Shalev: Sacred Words and Worlds: Geography, Religion, and Scholarship, 1550-1700 . Brill, Leiden 2012, p. 37-38 .
- ^ Current Notes and Coins. In: Bank of Israel. Retrieved April 24, 2018 .