Purple dyeing from the early Roman Empire to the end of the Byzantine Empire

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The purple necessary for purple dyeing was the most precious color of ancient times. It was obtained from purple snails that live in the sea . Long before the founding of Rome, purple was produced in the Mediterranean area, certainly as early as 1600 BC. In the area of ​​the Minoan culture , at a high technical level. Ancient literature only preserved fragments of the art of purple dyeing. More detailed information about this can only be found in the early Roman Empire in the “Naturalis historia” by Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD). His information is essential for knowledge of the ancient purple dyeing industry, but for the early Roman Empire it must be supplemented with information about the significance of the purple color in the ruling realm.

Only again from the Roman late antiquity are there further important information about the ancient purple dyeing from the area of ​​the Roman Empire. It is the chapter on purple goods in Diocletian's edict of maximum prices (301 AD) and laws of various Roman emperors on purple, which have been handed down in the Codex Theodosianus and the Codex Iustinianus . With the conquest of the Levant and its excellent purple factories and North Africa by the Muslim Arabs in the first half of the 7th century , purple production in the Roman / Byzantine Empire experienced a serious setback. In the area of ​​the Roman / Byzantine Empire it concentrated more and more on the capital, on Constantinople . It is presented in the last section on purple dyeing in the Byzantine Empire.

Early Roman Imperial Era after Pliny the Elder

One can divide Pliny’s presentation of purple dyeing in the 9th book of his “Naturalis historia” (paragraph [= marginal] 124–141) into two sections: a first, in which he talks about the species of purple snails, their way of life and their catch reported. He differentiates between two types of snails: those that were used for the production of purple colors and those that were used for the production of conchyllium colors (marginal numbers 125-133). Then, in a second section, in which he first informs about the methods of producing purple and conchylium colors and then about different types of purple: about single colors and combination colors that result from the combination of different purple dyes and finally about luxury purple colors (paras. 134-141 ).

Purple snails and their coloring (marg. 130–131)

Purple-colored fabrics and corresponding snails: Hercules Club or Brandhorn - Bolinus brandaris ; Blunt prickly snail (purple snail) - Hexaplex trunculus ; Red-mouthed inguinal snail - Stramonita haemastoma , Thais haemastoma . Exhibit of the Natural History Museum in Vienna

Pliny divides the purple snails into two categories, differentiating between the different varieties, their special color and the quality of the dye, and naming the natural colors or standard colors of the individual purple snails.

Snails with red (- purple) coloring Snails with a very dark, bluish tint

dye

Name after Pliny Bucinum Dialutense Taeniense Purpura Calculense
Art Red-mouthed groin snail ( Stramonita haemastoma ) Hercules Club ( Bolinus brandaris ) Ribbed purple snail ( Ocenebra erinacea ) Blunt spiny snail ( Hexaplex trunculus ) Northern purple snail ( Nucella lapillus )
colour bluish, sparkling red like the shimmering, dark rose Field of dark rose one variety: dark blue (with air supply)

other variety: dark blue violet (when exposed)

more dark blue
quality ** **** * ***** ****
Legend: Quality in the sense of authenticity and durability of the color, descending from the highest level, from *****, to the lowest *

It should be noted that the natural hues of the individual purple snails could be subject to changes. On the one hand, the shades of color were dependent on age, sexual maturity and the food that the individual purple snails had available; on the other hand, the purple colors could be nuanced by the methods used by the dyers to produce the dye.

However, the purple snails do not produce a finished dye, only its precursors (chromogens). These develop in the hypobranchial gland in different compositions in both groups. The gland is located in the mantle or respiratory cavity of the animals. According to the quality of the color, the purpura ( Hexaplex trunculus ) was probably most valued by the ancient dyers and not that of the diatulense snail ( Bolinus brandaris ).

Dyestuff production and the process of dyeing (marginal no. 133)

Pliny reports in his Naturalis historia 9, section 62, marginal no. 133 9:

“Eximitur postea vena quam diximus, cui addi salem necessarium, sextarios ferme centenas in libras; macerari triduo iustum, quippe tanto maior vis, quanto recentior; fervere in plumbo, singulasque amphoras centenas aquae, quingentenas medicaminis libras aequali ac modico vapore torreri et ideo longinquae fornacis cuniculo. ita despumatis subinde carnibus, quas adhaesisse venis necesse est, decimo ferme the liquata cortina vellus elutriatum mergitur in experimentum et, donec spei satis fiat, uritur liquor. "

“You then take out the vein [here the hypobranchial gland] that we were talking about, add the necessary salt, about one sextarius per 100 pounds; they are soaked for three days as a rule, because the fresher it is, the greater the strength [of the preparation]. They are then heated in a vessel made of lead / tin, calculate 500 pounds of dye for 100 amphorae of water and heat them with constant, moderately warm steam, and therefore in the tube of a long oven. If the pieces of meat, which inevitably got stuck to the veins, have been repeatedly skimmed off in this way and everything in the kettle has cleared up after about ten days, try dipping cleaned wool into the liquid and heating the juice until the desired effect is achieved is. "

The process described by Pliny for obtaining dye is an enzymatic hydrolysis. For this purpose, the hypobranchial gland with the dye precursors (chromogens) is removed from the snails and then salted in. For every 100 Roman pounds - around 32 kg - of glandular mass, about half a kilogram of salt is added and left to act for three days. Then the pulpy glandular matter is brought together with water in a pot made of lead or, according to recent research, made of tin. For every 500 pounds - about 163 kg - 100 amphorae of water (about 2,619 liters) are added.

Dye formation occurs relatively quickly under the activity of the enzyme purpurase under the action of atmospheric oxygen or light or both. But with that you have a problem right away: You cannot dye with the developed purple dye because it is unable to attach to the fiber. The developed purple dye first had to be reduced to a water-soluble state (leuco form), which the fiber can soak up, resulting in more intimate adsorption on the fiber. This reduction is triggered by the fermentation that begins after about three days. The organic components that inevitably stick to the glands seem to be responsible for this. Experiments showed that the vat must not be brought to a boil, otherwise the dye would not be formed. A constant moderate temperature and the right alkaline environment are believed to favor the multiplication of a bacterium which initiates the reduction. A color change takes place in the following days: from the initial purple to blue - blue-green - green-yellow. The dye has become soluble. Only in this way is it possible for the dye to absorb onto the wool or silk while it is immersed in the vat and then oxidize in the air to one of the many purple variants from violet red to blue violet and become insoluble in water. All colored material comes out of the vat green, it is immediately immersed in fresh water, and only in contact with the oxygen, if possible without exposure, does the purple variant appear. Finally, the soaked wool is washed well and hung up to dry.

Snail purple in Pliny or its coloring

Pliny knows two categories of snail purple colors: the purpurae (purple colors in the narrower sense) with a more reddish hue and the conchylia (conchylia colors) with a more bluish hue. The common view that the conchyllium colors were not real and full-fledged purple is not correct. The purple colors in the narrower sense arose from a mixture of the extracts of the purpura ( Hexaplex trunculus ) and the buccinum ( Stramonita haemastoma ) or solely from the diatulense ( Bolinus brandaris ), the conchyllium colors , however, solely from the purpura ( Hexaplex trunculus ), but with a different vat than the purples in a narrower sense.

Types of staining

With "dark rose" is probably meant a Gallica rose , which already existed in antiquity.
Single dyeings (margin no. 134)

1. Purple colors

Purpura rubra = purpura rosea = rubrum (ostrum) = Hebrew אַרְגָּמָן 'Argaman'

Color: like the dark rose (see illustration "dark rose" ); generated from the dye of Bolinus brandaris .

2. Conchyllium colors

(1) Dark conchyllium colors

a. Purpura hyacinthina = Heliotropeum caeruleum = atrum (ostrum) = Hebrew תְּכֵלֶת 'Thekelet' (see picture Santa Maria Maggiore )

Color: dark blue like the southern sky.

b. Purpura violacea = violaceum (ostrum), generated from the Hexaplex truncuus

Color: dark blue with a reddish shade, generated from the Hexaplex trunculus

c. Glaucum (ostrum)

Color: shimmering dark blue into dark green, generated from the Hexaplex trunculus

(2) Light conchyllium colors

a. Heliotropium, lividum (ostrum)

Color: light blue, smoke blue, generated from the Hexaplex trunculus

b. A reddish nuanced light blue (smoke blue) = mauve color that turns purple, produced from the Hexaplex trunculus .

These conchyllium colors were probably the standard colors of the single colors. There were probably many variations in color tones that resulted from single coloring. They were all obtained from the Hexaplex trunculus . The color differences were caused by different vats, by different exposures and variations in the air supply.

Double dyeings (margin nos. 134–135)

The double colors belonged exclusively to the category of purple colors in the narrower sense. With them, the glandular extracts of the purpura ( Hexaplex trunculus ) and the buccinum ( Stramonita haemastoma ) have been combined. Pliny emphasizes two varieties in particular:

Pompeii, Villa Misteri, fresco from the Mystery Hall (dresses with amethyst purple)
  1. Purpura amethystina = amethyst purple,
    The color was based on the Indian amethyst gemstone, created from a mixture of dyes from Hexaplex trunculus and Stramonita haemastoma (see illustration Pompeii, Villa Misteri )
  2. Color tyrius = dibapha tyria = Blatta = Tyrian purple (see figure Ravenna, S. Vitale )
    The color was blackish red like the dried blood. This purple variety resulted from a double coloration. The same wool (silk) had to be dyed twice: first in the green, not yet fully developed dye of the Hexaplex trunculus and then afterwards, without hanging up in the air, in the stramonita haemastoma. The Tyrian purple was considered the most precious purple variety of antiquity and was the excellent purple color for the imperial robes.
Triple dyeings (marginal numbers 139–140)

Pliny assesses the triple coloration as a product of luxury. For example, the textile material of one variety was first dyed with amethyst purple and then a Tyrian double color was applied. These luxury colors probably played no role in the normal purple trade.

Purple imitations (margin no. 141)

What is less well known is that the term “purple” was not reserved for snail purple in ancient times. Pliny reports that dyeings with Kermes and imitations of the various snail purple varieties , which were made with the plant dye “Fucus” ( Ry ti phl a ea tinctoria C. Agardh ), were called “purple”. The use of this plant pigment as an imitation purple probably goes back to the Phoenicians, who discovered an excellent variety of this plant in the eastern Canary Islands. The wool dyed with this vegetable dye was mainly produced in Carthage and Gadir, later Cadiz.

Likewise Purple were brisk stretched or (for example, the textile materials with purple paint-like coloring Orseille ) home for colored and with little purple nachgefärbt or mixed colorings ( Madder and Indigo ) applied, because even the partial replacement of the highly coveted purple color was unaffordable for many, it was centuries before Pliny about imitating colors made from snail purple by clever combinations of cheap dyes. Woven fabrics were hardly dyed, but the fleece for wool and the silk threads for silk (Source: Entry: Purple dyeing of the early Roman Empire according to Pliny the Elder)

Most important purple dye works in the Roman Empire

On the coast

The most important ones in the empire were the purple factories in Tire in Phenicia, others in Sidon, on the island of Propontis, in Milet, Phokaia, on Kos and Cyprus, in Attica, on Salamis and Euboea, in Phocis, in Argos, Ancona, Calabria, Taranto , Syracuse, Baiae and in Tingis as well as the Mauretania Caesariensis.

Inland

We find dye works in Parma, Capua, Truentum, Pollentia, Córduba, Laodikeia am Lykos, Thyateira, Augusta Raurica (Kaiseraugst). The purple dye works received the finished purple dye, as a gravestone relief of a Purpurarius (purple dyer and purple dealer) from Parma suggests, probably from purple factories on the coast. On the relief, next to the dyer's tools - a spathe for stirring the dye broth and a scale for weighing the dyed textiles - three vessels of various shapes, probably bottles for the various purple dyes, can be seen. The purple dyers in the interior of the country could also, as Inge Boesken Kanold demonstrated through experiments in 2001, use the glands of purple snails dried in salt for a new vat. These glands were easy to transport and lasted for months without being damaged. However, it was important that a small amount of the old one was added to the new vat, which encouraged the start of the reduction. The old vat took a long time to lift. However, it smelled pungent.

Use of purple

Purple was mainly used for clothes, for example for the official clothes of the emperor, vassal kings and high officials and the high priesthood. Wealthy citizens, especially rich women, were not prevented from wearing purple dresses - no official dresses, of course. In addition to the color of clothes, purple was used as decoration in the form of purple carpets, purple blankets on dining sofas, as well as bed pads or horse blankets. Purple was also used as paint , face paint and make-up . In medicine, doctors prescribed the ashes of burned purple snails in powder form and as an ointment with the addition of honey and lard.

Purple as a status symbol until the beginning of late antiquity

The emperor

  1. Purple toga picta, later called Triumphal trabea : In the first two centuries of Roman imperial rule, the princeps was regarded as a representative of the entire bourgeoisie. The legitimate confirmation of his position came from the Senate, the highest instance of the bourgeois state. That is why the basis of the imperial costume, the civil dress, the toga, or in its most precious form the toga picta, later called triumphal trabea, is the basis of the imperial costume. Their silk was usually dyed with the most precious kind of purple, Tyrian purple, adorned with gold rosettes, and encrusted with rich pearls and precious stones. In addition, the emperor wore a white tunic adorned with gold and purple shoes. The original reason for the emperor to appear in the toga picta was his appearance as a triumphant, as a gambler and at solemn sacrificial acts. The takeover of the annual consulate then offered a special authorization. His trabea differed from that of the bourgeois annual consul in that it was encrusted with precious stones. Soon no one else in the state was entitled to put on the garb of triumph: like a legitimate victory, triumph was limited to the emperor. Only the pageants of the consuls who stood there and the triumphal dress of the magistrates who gave them a reminder that others were once involved in this honor.
  2. Purpurpaludament (Purpurchlamys): The Chlamys belonged to the royal costume of the Macedonian rulers. Alexander the Great (356 to 323 BC) took it over from them. After him the Hellenistic kings clothed themselves with it. At the time of the Roman Republic, the emperor was only allowed to wear the purple paludament, probably colored with Tyrian purple, for military tasks outside of Italy. In Rome itself, the consuls put it on when declaring war, opening the Temple of Janus and going out to war. But even in the early Principate, the emperors wore it in Rome and in peaceful affairs. Nevertheless, its military character prevailed at the time. Due to the growing militarization of the Roman state, the purple paludament became a permanent fixture in the emperor's wardrobe. In addition, a purple tunica and purple trousers. With Commodus (from 180 AD) this restriction was abandoned and the purple paludament, together with the armored garb, became the exclusive military decoration of the emperor in Rome.

The empress

During this period, nothing certain is known about a purple robe reserved for the empress: Agrippina, the wife of Emperor Claudius (41–54), is the only empress of the early imperial period who mentions a golden paludament as her husband's companion in bloody equestrian games . Because of its uniqueness in the tradition, it cannot have been an imperial insignia.

  1. The Palla costume made of Tyrian purple: The purple dress that the empresses put on in public was probably a Palla costume ( stole with palla ) in Tyrian purple. It is not to be assessed as an imperial insignia, because there is no reference to a law in the early imperial period that this costume was reserved exclusively for Augusta and was forbidden to the ladies of society.
  2. A triumphal trabea: It is not unlikely, however, that Augusta, the wife of an emperor who held the annual consulate, was given a consular Augusta costume parallel to the triumphal trabea of ​​Augustus, like the statue of an empress (3rd century) from Carnutum shows. It is a toga-like, richly decorated cover that hangs down from the left shoulder, continues over the back to the chest and to the left arm. Magnia Urbica (283–285), Galeria Valeria (305–314), Helena, Constantin's mother and Fausta († 326) could be dressed in a similar garment from the end of the 3rd century onwards. There are no examples in purple. A female garment corresponding to the toga was called “cyclas” or “ricinium”.

The annual consul, the high officials, the senators and the leading priests

The annual consul, praetors, senators, the knights, the Curulian magistrates and members of the four major priests' colleges also wore purple as a status symbol. With the beginning of the Principate, the political situation changed. The former leading estates had to accept a loss of their influence of power. However, especially in the early imperial period, an effort on the part of the emperors can be recognized to maintain the traditional status symbolism and thus to preserve the social hierarchy. The new system of rule was based even more than before on the knighthood ( ordo equester ) as the backbone of imperial administration. In addition to the gold ring, which was bestowed by the Princeps as the most important status symbol and thus symbolized legal admission to the knighthood, it was the state horse and the angustus clavus (narrow clavus) of the tunica that represented the social rank to the outside world.

  1. The toga picta / Triumphaltrabea without jewelery made of precious stones or pearls as a status symbol of the annual consul and the praetors.
  2. The purple-colored latus clavus , the broad clavus, the tunica as a badge of the senator.
  3. The purple angustus clavus , the narrow clavus, the knight's tunica as the knight's badge.
  4. The toga praetexta : a toga, which is lined with about a 75 mm broad purple strip: A with an approximately 75 millimeter wide purple stripes bordered Toga (toga praetexta) was of curule Adi l s, Praetors , consul , censors and members of the four major College of priests ( pontifices , augurs , epulons, quindecimviri) in an official capacity and carried by boys up to the age of majority. After a ceremony ( tirocinium fori ), the young men took off the toga praetexta and, as adult citizens, wore the simple, uninhibited toga ( toga virilis or toga pura ).

Imperial ban on purple

The main concern of the emperors is to limit the luxury, which according to public morality is reprehensible for private individuals. This can be seen in the laws of Julius Caesar († 45 BC) and Emperor Tiberius (42 BC-37 AD). Julius Caesar only allowed purple dresses for certain people, certain age groups and at certain times. To his horror, Tiberius discovered that the purple laws passed by Emperor Augustus (27 BC to 14 AD) were not respected by very many citizens. Nero only banned the sale of the most expensive varieties, the Tyrian and the amethyst purple, and a ban on wearing them. Up until the end of the fourth century, not a single imperial ban on purple has survived. The purple, even the most expensive varieties, are freely available. It goes without saying that the official rank costumes made of purple were unavailable.

Traditional purple prices in Caesar's time

In Caesar's time, one pound of amethyst purple wool paid the price of 100 denars or 400 sesterces (approx. 270 euros in 2020) for the same amount of Tyrian purple wool, but 1,000 denars. (approx. 2,700 euros in 2020). Up to 10,000 sesterces (approx. 6,800 euros in 2020) were paid for purple dresses. At the time of the emperor Augustus the value of the annual food ration for a legionnaire was 60 denarii.

Late antiquity

Purple varieties according to the maximum price - Edict of Diocletian (301)

The purple varieties are listed in accordance with the maximum price edict of Diocletian = Edictum Diocletiani aliorumque de pretiis rerum venalium , Chapter 24 according to maximum prices, descending from the highest price for one Roman pound (approx. 327 g). It is not only the actual purple varieties, i.e. those made from snail purple, but also combinations of snail purple with other dyes, as well as wool from Nikaia dyed with Kermes and wool that is mixed with the plant pigment Hysginum ( Ry ti phl a ea tinctoria C. . Agardh ) was colored. This list does not, by and large, differ from that of Pliny, but in the details.

Staining from pure snail purple

Double dyeing

The edict distinguishes between dyeings in raw silk, i.e. the silk threads obtained from the silkworm without further processing, and raw wool, which is also unspun. This distinction, however, only applies to the coloring with the most precious purple, the double-colored black and red Tyrian purple, here called Blatta. For the other colors, raw wool (fleece) is required.

Pliny obviously does not know Oxyblatta as a crimson, blue-tinged, crimson purple variety. In terms of color, it seems to match the color of the emperor's signature. The Oxyblatta was made from the dye mixture of the Stramonita haemastoma and the Hexaplex trunculus, presumably with the addition of an acid.

Single staining ( purpura haplia ) (24, 5)

The single colorations with a maximum price of 12,000 denarii are not listed in detail as in Pliny. In the context of this chapter, however, the single colorations of amethyst purple (hypoblatta) (24, 20) and the crimson, blue-tinged crimson oxy-leaf purple (oxyblatta) (24, 20) are mentioned in a different context.

Combination of snail purple with another dye

The purple wool from Miletus (24, 6–7) is available in two qualities:

  • Highest quality, double-colored, purple right (24, 6) 12,000 denarii
  • Second quality (24, 7) 10,000 denarii

The first quality of the double-dyed Milesian purple wool cannot be made from two snail purple colors, but only from a combination of a single snail purple color with an animal, mineral or vegetable dye because of the position in the price edict according to the single-dyed snail purple and the much low price. The color of the wool cannot be deduced from this information. With regard to wool from Miletus, Virgil notes in his Georgica that the pieces of fleece from Miletus were dyed with great effort and turned into Tyrian purple colors. It is noteworthy that Virgil speaks in the plural, i.e. of several purple colors from Tire. So it can be the black-red hue of the Tyrian purple and the amethyst-colored of the hypo-leaf purple.

For the second variety all information is missing except for the price. In any case, it is of poor quality. So all hue ideas remain speculation.

Kermes-dyed wool from Nikaia (24, 8)

What one can imagine under the Kermes-dyed wool from Nikaia at the maximum price of 1,500 denarii remains in the dark. Neither the recipe for their coloring, nor their shade are known.

Wool dyed with the vegetable dye Hysginum (24, 9–12)

  1. Hysgenaes proteias algenaesias (Greek) 600 denarii
  2. Hysgenaes proteias deutereeias (Greek) 500 denarii
  3. Hysgenaes phormaes g '(Greek) 400 denarii
  4. Hysgenaes phormaes d '(Greek) 300 denarii

Hisgene algenensia (Latin.) Is identical to the fucus marinus of Pliny, scientifically called Ry ti phl a ea tinctoria C. Agardh . The seaweed is rich in dye and is found throughout the Mediterranean. Their natural color is a vivid fuchsia red. First of all, it is astonishing that wool dyed with a vegetable dye has been included in this list of purple goods. The reason was probably that cheap imitations of expensive purple varieties were made from this vegetable dye.

The maximum price edict lists four types of Hysgin wool. The ancient literature does not tell you which four varieties are involved here. The text analysis shows that all four types of Hysgin wool form a unit: They all have the same generic name and are numbered from 1 to 4. The question, however, is what connects these four varieties on the one hand and what distinguishes them from one another on the other. They are certainly linked by the article designation “hysgenae” and the specificity “algenaesia”, which must be added in the following lines. This means that all four woolen goods were dyed on the basis of the fucus. If one proceeds from this assumption, then the four varieties differ in the variety of the fucus colorings as well as the additional colorants. It is not necessarily a coincidence that the number of varieties of Hysgin woolens corresponds to the number of four different types of purple snail at the beginning of the chapter. The four types of Hysgin wool appear like a parallel to the four types of real snail purple. Incidentally, prices are going down in both rows. So one could conclude that the four types of Hysgin wool can be seen as imitations of the four types of real purple. So the most expensive Hysgin variety would be the imitation of the black-red Blatta, the second variety the imitation of the amethyst-colored Hypoblatta, the third the imitation of the Oxyblatta and the fourth the imitation of the single-colored purple. It cannot be proven whether these assumptions are correct. However, they are more likely to be found in the Holmiensis papyrus for recipes for making imitations of Blatta and Oxyblatta with the use of Fucus.

Another problem remains to be clarified: What is the meaning of the terms prooteia and phoraema in the 9th and 10th or in the 11th and 12th lines. The problem can be solved most easily if one understands prooteia in the sense of 1st quality and phoraema in the sense of variety and adds phoraema alpha in line 9 and phoraema beta in line 10. So in the 9th line would be the first (best) quality of the first variety of Fucuspurpur (imitation of Blatta), in the 10th line the 1st quality of the 2nd variety (imitation of Hypoblatta) and in the 11th line the first Quality of the 3rd variety (Oxyblatta) and in the 12th line the first quality of the 4th variety, i.e. the single-colored purple.

To compare the wages of a farm laborer per month with food: 25 denarii (7, 1); The wages of an elementary teacher per month and per student: 50 denarii (7, 66) according to the maximum price edict.

Legal regulations: Imperial production and sales monopoly of the snail purple

Thessaloniki, Hosios David, apse mosaic, Christ in Theophany (Christ with oxy-leaf-purple tunica)
Rome, Santa Maria Maggiore, triumphal arch mosaics, right side, black and blue Hyacinthina purple: representation in the temple (Lacerna of the high priests); Emperor Augustus with Virgil (Purple Lamys of the Emperor), the magician before King Herod (Purple Lamys of the King)

The purple dyeing was operated by state dye works as well as by private craftsmen. As stated, the farms were located directly on the coasts and on the islands of the Mediterranean Sea, but also inland. There were many of them. The emperor had his own factory in Tyros with a weaving mill: the manufacture and sale of purple goods were combined in a purple shop. Up to the year 383 there were no production or sales restrictions for private dye works. Between 383 and 392, the emperors Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius I forbade private purple dyers to dye and sell silk and unspun wool with Blatta, Oxyblatta and Hyacinthina. The emperors thus claimed a production and sales monopoly. The emperors Theodosius I, Arcadius and Honorius also monopolized the imitation of Blatta between 393 and 395. However, these monopolies could not be enforced in the long run: Emperor Theodosius II did not adopt them in his code of law (Codex Theodosianus), which was promulgated in 430. It was not until Emperor Justinian that he claimed the monopolies again by including them in his Codex Iustinianus, which was published in 529. What success is not known. Since the monopoly, the subjects could only buy these special types of purple in state or licensed shops and process them into purple clothes, trimmings and trimmings made of purple wool, purple vela, purple blankets and carpets, unless a state prohibition opposed this it showed that special purple dresses in the empire were withdrawn from private use as public status symbols.

Purple as a status symbol

The emperor

Emperor Justinian I with leaf-purple paludamentum (purple lamys) and entourage, Ravenna, S. Vitale, apse garments
  1. The leaf-purple paludamentum (purple lamys)
    In the third and fourth centuries of our era, the leadership of the state is increasingly transferred to the military. Accordingly, the emperors in the purple general's coat, the paludamentum (Greek Chlamys), with military attributes such as the armor appear more and more frequently. After all, the emperor alone is entitled to wear the purple paludament / purple lamys with three pendilies adorned with gemstones, both as head of state and as military commander in chief. The purple mantle, called “purpura”, was certainly the emperor's insignia even before Diocletian (284 to 305), and it acquired importance under constitutional law. Applying the “purpura” is now synonymous with “assuming power”. The purpura is the main component of the military peace costume as the supreme regent of the state as well as of the warrior tank costume as the supreme commander. Both of them have additional purple dresses: a long, gold-adorned, purple, but sometimes white tunic, plus purple trousers and oxy-leaf-purple, i.e. crimson-red campagi, decorated with pearls and precious stones . The tank costume included the short purple colobium, which reached to the knees, with purple trousers and cothurni decorated with pearls and precious stones. Under threat of the death penalty and confiscation of goods, the manufacture of the purple paludament, its possession and its use were prohibited to any person who was not of imperial dignity and belonged to the imperial family.
  2. The leaf-purple Triumphaltrabea with gemstones and pearls
    In contrast to the annual consul, the emperor can put on the leaf silk with golden rosettes and triumphal trabea decorated with precious stones and pearls at any time. This is all the more true after Justinian abolished the civil consulate in 540. The emperor now only uses the purple Mappa as a player. The triumphal trabea was replaced by the strip-like Loros in the course of the 5th century.
    However, it should be noted that since the Vicennalia of Constantine the Great (325 and 326) the jeweled diadem has been the actual insignia of the empire reserved only for the emperor, in contrast to other dignitaries who are also allowed to wear the purple lamys and the triumphal trabea but not the jeweled diadem .
  3. The imperial purple ink
    Since Leo I (470) the use of oxy-leaf-purple, crimson-red ink for the legal validity of the written imperial edicts belongs to the imperial privileges.

The imperial co-regent and the Caesar

Since Constantine the Great, the purple paludament (purple lamys) without gemstone jewelry and without pearl fibula has also been the most important insignia of the co-rulers and Caesar.

The empress

Ravenna, S. Vitale, apse garments, Empress Theodora with the mother of Justinian and his daughter (?) (Purple lamys of the empress, purple silk stole of the imperial mother)
  1. The leaf-purple chlamys (see illustration Ravenna, S. Vitale, Kaiserin Theodora )
    A leaf-purple chlamys with gemstone brooch is only allowed to wear the Augusta among the women of the empire, but only since the elevation of Aelia Flaccilla to Augusta in 383 has the purple llamys been equipped with the gemstone brooch typical of Augusta with three gem-decorated pendilies in the usual Augusta costume, before was it is the Palla costume in Tyrian purple. In addition, the empress wears oxy-leaf-purple shoes with pearls and gemstones. As the emblematic insignia of her Augusta dignity, she is the only woman in the empire to wear a jeweled diadem.
  2. The leaf-purple triumphal costume with pearl and gemstone coating
    With a triumphal costume / later with the Loros with pearl and precious stone jewelry, the empress is distinguished as the emperor's counterpart when the emperor appears in the function of a consul. But there are only a few examples mentioned: with Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, with Fausta, his wife, with Aelia Flaccilla and Ariadne. No example of such a color wardrobe has come to us. That Tyrian purple was used in the manufacture of the Triumphaltrabea has only been handed down in literary terms. From this the purple color for the triumphal trabea of ​​the empress is deduced.
  3. The Palla costume in leaf silk
    The usual costume of the Augustae from the early imperial period until Aelia Flaccilla (383) was the Palla costume in Tyrian purple. But it cannot be seen as a status symbol of the Augustae, because the Nobilissima femina is also depicted in a Palla costume. The nobillissima femina is the female counterpart of Nobilissimus to look at, which was classified according to Caesar the court rank. In addition, it seems to have been worn as a luxury costume by the ladies of higher society until the Theodosian Purple Laws 424, which will be discussed in the next section.

Further purple privileges for the emperor and his family

During the reign of Emperor Theodosius II, from the year 424, full-leaf purple pallia (cloaks) and tunics made of silk, but not those made of wool, were reserved for the emperor and his family, as well as dresses in which either the weft threads or the warp threads were leaf-purple and the counter threads were colored differently. This probably included the decidedly luxury garments such as the purple-gold pallia and tunics, as well as the half-leaf-purple alethinocrustae - they were transparent like crystal and provided with a leaf-dyed weft thread - and the polymita. These were very valuable, knitted textiles in which the weft thread consisted of several threads of different colors, including leaf-purple threads. The textiles mentioned had no official character, however, but belonged to the private wardrobe of the emperor and his family. Emperor Justinian I partially revoked this imperial privilege and reserved only the leaf-purple pallia and tunics made of silk and allowed the other half-leaf purple robes to the ladies of society again. An example of the leaf silk tunica is the leaf silk stole with wide golden clavi of the mother of Emperor Justinian, which is depicted next to the empress on the mosaic of Empress Theodora in S. Vitale in Ravenna (see illustration Ravenna, S. Vitale ).

The annual consul, the consul suffectus (the elected annual consul) and the praetors

Until the abolition of the consulate by Justinian I, the triumphal trabea, but in contrast to that of the emperor, was the official dress of this incumbent until the abolition of the consulate by Justinian I. The annual consul was only allowed to put it on when taking office and as a game giver.

The designated, the past and the titular annual consul

The simple leaf-purple trabea without rosettes and gold jewelry.

From bishops

The leaf-purple casula / planeta

This garment seems to have evolved from the paenula in the 5th century. It had a wider neckline, was a little longer, but had no hood and no V - neckline. There is much to be said for seeing an insignia of his spiritual office in the purple casula / planeta of a bishop, at least in the west. The purple color can emphasize the episcopal leadership. The bishops were obviously not bound to use the purple casula / planeta in their spiritual functions.

The imperial purple privilege - no general purple ban for the subjects

Since the end of the 3rd century, only the leaf-dyed paludament (purple lamys) was generally forbidden as an insignia of imperial rule. Under threat of the death penalty and confiscation of goods, the manufacture of the purple paludament, its possession and its use were prohibited to any person who was not of imperial dignity and belonged to the imperial family. In addition, the leaf-purple triumhaltrabea with gemstones and pearls was an imperial privilege, insofar as the emperor, unlike the annual consul, could wear it at every opportunity. Since 540, after the annual consulate was abolished, he was only entitled to do so. Another ban on purple was then issued by Emperor Theodosius II in 424. Any person who did not belong to the imperial family was forbidden to use tunics and pallia made of leaf silk, as well as the half-leaf-purple luxury garments already described. Emperor Justinian I lifted the ban on half-leaf purple robes for women, but upheld the ban on full-leaf silk pallia and tunicae. All other garments dyed with the imperial purple were permitted to the subjects. Anyone who could afford it could buy and wear purple-leaf tunics and pallia made of wool, purple-leaf lacernae, and paenulae - these were coats of various designs. The decisive factor here was the general principle of Roman law, according to which everything was considered permitted that the law did not expressly forbid.

Purple manuscripts

Writing materials were already colored purple in the early imperial period. Literary evidence can be found in Ovid, who alludes to a purple cover of a scroll in the Tristien, Martial, who names the purple title page at the upper edge of the scroll and Lucianus of Samosata, who in “Adversum indoctum” is a splendid copy of a book with purple parchment and golden omphalos mentioned. The custom of writing on purple manuscripts with gold and silver inks can be traced back to the 3rd century. The purple coloring of individual parts of roles and codices existed before this point in time. Evidence is a biography about Maximinus Thrax (Emperor 235 to 238), written by Julius Capitolinus. In it Julius Capitolinus refers to a Homer manuscript where gold script was used on purple. This was given to a young man as part of his training at school. In the beginning of the 4th century there is a reference to this in a volume of poetry by Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius, dedicated to Emperor Constantine the Great around 320, the introduction of which refers to the splendid decoration of the work with purple and metal ink. At the end of the 4th century one can already conclude that it was more widespread, as Jerome polemicized against the purple codices and John Chrysostom criticized, in addition to the sparse Bible holdings among Christians, that these so-called luxury manuscripts were more for display than for spiritual use. Despite such criticism, purple manuscripts also spread throughout the Church throughout late antiquity. They experienced their last heyday in the age of Justinian I. The majority of the surviving purple parchment manuscripts also date from the 6th century. Illuminated manuscripts such as the “ Wiener Genesis ”, the “Codex purpureus Rossanensis” and the “Codex Sinopensis” should be emphasized . The "Cotton Genesis" is a bit older. Pure text manuscripts have also been preserved on purple parchment, for example fragments of the Gospel from the 6th century from Asia Minor, known as “Codex N”, and the “Codex Beratinus” from the Johannes monastery in Berat in Albania. But the most famous text manuscript is the “Codex Argenteus” in Uppsala (6th century), which contains Wulfila's Gothic translation of the Bible.

Byzantine Empire until 1453

After the conquest of the Levant and North Africa by the Islamic Arabs in the first half of the 7th century, purple production concentrated more and more on the capital of the empire, Constantinople . The consequences that resulted from this for the use of the purple by the subjects are only in the laws of the Emperor Leo VI. tangible.

The purple laws of Emperor Leo VI. des Wise Men (886–912) - 80. Constitutio and the basilica

Even about 350 years after Justinian was enacted the purple laws, the leaf purple is the imperial purple. The imperial production and sales monopoly for leaf purple is maintained, but not for amethyst and hyacinthina purple. Both types of purple can therefore be produced and sold privately. But Leo VI. has a considerable tightening when using the leaf purple. Only clothing trimmings and trimmings dyed with it are allowed to the subjects, but no clothes dyed with a leaf. Garments were attachments of rectangular, circular or strip-like cut or insert pieces. Braids were fringes on clothes or on scarves. The purple silk and purple wool for it can, however, only be purchased in the imperial shops or shops licensed by the emperor.

The purple as a status symbol of the emperor and the empress

With the imperial purple privilege, the emperors of Byzantium continue the late ancient tradition of the Roman emperors and empresses. The emperor wore a service costume until the end of the Middle Byzantine period (approx. 1250). the purple paludament with purple or white tunica, which was later called Dibetesion or Saccos and the Trabea triumphalis or the Loros with red-purple shoes. Until the beginning of the Middle Byzantine period (approx. 650), the empress wore the purple chlamys as a service costume parallel to the emperor, and since then the loros. After the turn of the millennium, the imperial garments show blue hyacinthine purple and crimson, blue-tinged, crimson-red oxy-leaf purple in addition to leaf purple.

The purple certificate - a Byzantine invention

From the 9th to the 12th centuries, and with a high degree of probability earlier, the emperor used purple parchment primarily for correspondence with foreign princes, for example with the emperor of the west, the pope or the incumbent caliph. Certificates of appointment or ceremonial privileges on purple parchment are considered rare. Purple certificates are regularly written with gold ink (chrysography). Between the lines, the Byzantine chancellery provided translations of the original Greek text in silver ink.

The purple certificates of the West, on the other hand, appear purely as ostentatious products that require a chancellery original. You need the office original to be valid and you could get the rank of an original copy by affixing a gold bull. Such documents with gold writing on purple parchment are still preserved in the form of 7 imperial documents from the years 1062–1147/51 and two diplomas by Rogers of Sicily (1134/40). The only example in the West of an original purple certificate and the additional purple copy is the Rogers II diploma for the Capella Palatina in Palermo (April 28, 1140). There are also other examples that have only been handed down in literary terms. But there were also uncolored parchment documents, written in gold. The oldest evidence is attested to as early as the 8th century, but only in literary form - it is the lost diploma of Aripert II for the Roman Church (705/707), perhaps a purple certificate.

Imperial purple an export hit - but a forgery

Due to the fame of the Blatta from the manufacture of the emperor in Constantinople, imperial purple was delivered to the west and Europe in the form of purple-dyed silks, as purple manuscripts and purple certificates. Throughout the Middle Ages, the rulers of the West and the popes used the purple as an expression of their majesty and highness. Byzantium served as a model here. Among the imperial insignia of the Holy Roman Empire are three red or purple royal cloaks from the 12th and 13th centuries. and the imperial gospel from the early 9th century , which contains 236 sheets of purple parchment. In the 8th and 9th centuries, numerous papal foundations in churches in Rome and the surrounding area named purple-dyed silk fabrics. However, no real snail purple could be detected in the purple-colored silk remains that had come down to us in scientific analyzes. The purple color that appears here mostly turned out to be litmus / folium or a mixture of colors, for example from madder, kermes or menninge with various binders. These mixtures were proven in the Carolingian and Ottonian book illumination and in the purple certificates. This is fully confirmed by the specialist Tanja Kohwagner-Nikolei, Bavarian Academy of Sciences , in Munich and, according to her, also applies to the so-called imperial garments in the Diocesan Museum of Bamberg : the blue Kunigunden coat, the rider's coat, the starry coat and the rational . The blue Kunigunden coat is dyed purely indigo, the other three received an originally purple hue through a portion of madder in the indigo-based dyeing process.

See also

literature

  • Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire. 3rd, unchanged edition. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1980, ISBN 3-534-04652-8 .
  • Kenneth C. Bailey: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on Chemical Subjects. Part I. Edward Arnold & Co, London 1929, pp. 24-35, 152-158. In: The Classical Review. 44 (05) November 2009, p. 204, doi: 10.1017 / S0009840X00051465 .
  • Inge Boesken Kanold: The Purple Fermentation Vat: Dyeing or Painting with Murex trunculus. In: Jo Kirby (Ed.): Dyes in History and Archeology 20. Archetype, London 2005, ISBN 1-873132-29-8 , pp. 150-154.
  • Richard Delbrueck : The Consular Diptychs and related monuments: Text (= studies on late antique art history. 2). Walter de Gruyter publisher, Berlin / Leipzig 1929.
  • Joseph Doumet: Etudes sur la couleur pourpre ancienne et tentative de reproduction du procédé de teinture de la ville de Tyr décrit par Pline l'Ancien. 2nd Edition. Imprimerie Catholique, Beirut 1980, pp. 1-28. OCLC 8664777 .
  • Marianne Guckelsberger: Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity. Thesis. University of Iceland, December 2013 ( skemman.is [PDF; 671 MB]).
  • Rolf Haubrichs: L'étude de la pourpre: Histoire d'une couleur, chimie et expérimentations. In: Maria A. Borello (ed.): Conchiglie e Archeologia, contributi scientifici in occasione della mostra “Dentro la conchiglia”, Sezione archeologica., Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturale, Trento, September 13, 2003–25 gennaio 2004 (= Preistoria Alpina . Vol. 40 [2004], Supplemento 1, ISSN  0393-0157 ). Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Trento 2005, OCLC 634427611 , pp. 133-160 ( vliz.be [PDF; 8.2 MB]).
  • Patrick E. McGovern, RH Michel: Royal Purple Dye. The Chemical Reconstruction of the Ancient Mediterranean Industry. In: Accounts of Chemical Research. Volume 23, 1990, pp. 152-158, doi: 10.1021 / ar00173a006 .
  • Siegfried Lauffer. Diocletian's price edict (= texts and commentaries. An ancient scholarly series. 5). Verlag Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1971.
  • Elisabeth Piltz: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art. Volume 3. Verlag Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 428-444.
  • G. Pliny Secundus: Historia naturalis. Latin-German (text: Gerhard Winkler, translation and commentary: Roderich König). Heimeran publishing house, Munich 1979, ISBN 3-7765-2141-4 .
  • Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingdom of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries. Masch. Diss. Theol., Freiburg im Breigau 1965.
  • Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing after the report of Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis historia . In: Traditio . Studies in Ancient and Medieval History, Thought, and Religion . tape 42 , no. 1 , 1986, ISSN  0362-1529 , pp. 1-57 .
  • Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. 33. Munster i. W. 1990, pp. 209-239.
  • Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art. Volume 3. Verlag Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 369-498.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Marianne Guckelsberger: Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity, Thesis. University of Iceland, December 2013, pp. 7–9.
  2. ↑ C. Pliny Secundus: Naturalis historia. Latin-German 9, Rn. 124–141: Text: Gerhard Winkler, translation and commentary: Roderich König, Verlag Heimeran Munich 1979, pp. 92–104.
  3. ↑ L. Aenneus Seneca: Naturales Quaestiones 1, 3, 12 f.
  4. ↑ Herbert Fouquet: Structure and reactions of natural chromogens indogoid dyes in purple snails, Diss. Nat. Saarbrücken 1970, p. 1-2 .
  5. ↑ C. Plinius Secundus: Naturalis historia 9, Rn. 133: Text: Gerhard Winkler, Verlag Heimeran Munich 1979, p. 98. - Translated by Roderich König: C. Plinius Secundus, Naturalis historia 9, marginal no. 133, Heimeran Verlag Munich 1979, p. 99.
  6. ↑ Herbert Fouquet: Structure and reactions of natural chromogens of indogoid dyes in purple snails. Diss. Nat. Saarbrücken 1970, p. 13; 37-43; 93-96.
  7. ↑ See also vat dyeing and vat dyes : Franz Weiss: The vat dyes and their use in dyeing and fabric printing. ISBN 3-211-80326-2 , p. 30 ( limited preview in Google book search).
  8. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing after the report of Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis historia . In: Traditio: Studies in Ancient and Medieval History, Thought, and Religion . tape 42 , no. 1 , 1986, pp. 3 f .
  9. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing after the report of Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis historia . In: Traditio Studies in Ancient and Medieval History, Thought, and Religion . tape 42 , no. 1 , 1986, pp. 17th f .
  10. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing according to the report of Pliny the Elder in his "Naturalis historia". In: Traditio . 42 (1), (1986), pp. 24-35, 54-55.
  11. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing according to the report of Pliny the Elder in his "Naturalis historia". In: Traditio . 42 (1), (1986) pp. 20-24.
  12. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing according to the report of Pliny the Elder in his "Naturalis historia". In: Traditio . 42 (1), (1986), pp. 22-24.
  13. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing according to the report of Pliny the Elder in his "Naturalis historia". In: Traditio . 42 (1), (1986), pp. 35-36.
  14. ↑ Rytiphlaea C. Agardh, 1817: Algaebase. In: algaebase.org. Retrieved July 3, 2019 .
  15. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The ancient purple dyeing after the report of Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis historia . In: Traditio . tape 42 , 1986, pp. 46-48 .
  16. ↑ anonymous entry. Purple dyeing of the early Roman Empire according to Pliny the Elder.
  17. ↑ a b Joachim Marquardt: The private life of the Romans 2nd part. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt 1980, pp. 512-513 (Unchanged reprint of the 2nd edition provided by A. Mau, Leipzig 1886).
  18. ^ Marianne Guckelsberger: Purple Murex Dye in Antiquity (Thesis). University of Iceland, December 2013, pp. 10, 15.
  19. ↑ Hugo Blümner: Technology and terminology of trades and arts among Greeks and Romans 1.2., Leipzig / Berlin 1912, p. 247, Fig. 83.
  20. ^ Karl Schneider: Purpura. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classical antiquity . Volume 23. Stuttgart 1959, Col. 2018-2019.
  21. ↑ Richard Delbrueck : The consular diptychs and related monuments (= studies of late antique art history. 2). Berlin / Leipzig 1929, pp. 51–54.
  22. ↑ Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire. 3rd, unchanged edition. Darmstadt 1980, pp. 143-160.
  23. ^ Elisabeth Piltz: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art . Volume 3. Verlag Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 431-435.
  24. ↑ Marcell Restle: Signs of rule. In: Real Lexicon for Antiquity and Christianity . Volume 14. Stuttgart 1988, Col. 947-948.
  25. ↑ Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire. 3. Edition. Darmstadt 1980, pp. 175-184.
  26. ↑ Marcell Restle: Signs of rule. In: Real Lexicon for Antiquity and Christianity. Volume 14. Stuttgart 1988, Col. 948-951.
  27. ↑ Cornelius Tacitus: Annales 12, 56; C. Pliny Secundus, Naturalis historia 33, marginal no. 63.
  28. ↑ Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire. 3. Edition. Darmstadt 1980, p. 145, fig. 1.
  29. ↑ Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire . 3rd, unchanged edition. Darmstadt 1980, p. 145 .
  30. ↑ Documentation: Yearbook of the Hungarian Archaeological Society 1, 1923, Pl. 3, 2–5;
  31. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingship of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries. Masch. Diss. theol., Freiburg im Breisgau 1965, pp. 122-123.
  32. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingship of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries. Masch. Diss. theol., Freiburg im Breisgau 1965, p. 133.
  33. ^ Servius grammaticus: Commentarius in Vergilii opera in Aen. 1, 282.
  34. ^ Frank Kolb: On the status symbolism in ancient Rome: Chiron 7. 1977, pp. 250-252.
  35. ^ Richard Delbrueck : The consular diptychs and related monuments (= studies on late antique art history. 2). Berlin / Leipzig 1929, pp. 53–54.
  36. ^ Marcell Restle: Herrschaftzszeichen. In: Real Lexicon for Antiquity and Christianity . Volume 14. Stuttgart 1988, Col. 939-941.
  37. ^ Richard Delbrueck : The Consular Diptychs and related monuments . In: Studies on late antique art history . tape 2 . Berlin / Leipzig, p. 51-52 .
  38. ↑ Frank Kolb: On the status symbolism in ancient Rome . In: Chiron . tape 7 , 1977, pp. 255 .
  39. ^ Matthias Gelzer: Caesar: politician and statesman. 6th edition. Wiesbaden 1960, p. 267.
  40. ↑ C. Suetonius Tranquillus: De vita Caesarum, divus Iulius 43, 1.
  41. ↑ Lucius Cassius Dio: Romanorum historia 57, 13, 5.
  42. ^ C. Suetonius Tranquillus: De vita Caesarum, divus Nero 32, 3.
  43. ↑ Joachim Marquardt: The private life of the Romans. Part 2 . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1980, ISBN 978-3-534-02082-9 , pp. 511-512 .
  44. ↑ Imperium Romanum. Economy. Prices in ancient Rome. Prices for bread . Retrieved April 9, 2020.
  45. ^ Siegfried Lauffer (ed.): Diokletian's price edict (= texts and comments. An ancient science series. 5). Verlag de Gruyter, Berlin 1971, pp. 167-168.
  46. ↑ Codex Iustinianus 11, 23, 6.
  47. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The purple varieties in the price edict of Diocletian of the year 301. In: Byzantine research. Vol. 15 (1990), ISSN  0525-3306 , pp. 241-253.
  48. ↑ P. Vergilius Maro: Georgica 3: quamvis Milesia magno uellera mutentur Tyrios incocta rubores , lines 306-307.
  49. ↑ Naturalis historia 26, 103. Comment: Gerhard Steigerwald: The purple varieties in Diocletian's price edict of 301. In: Byzantinische Forschungen. 15 (1990), ISSN  0525-3306 , pp. 266-267.
  50. ^ A b c Gerhard Steigerwald: The purple varieties in Diocletian's price edict of 301. In: Byzantinische Forschungen. Vol. 15 (1990), ISSN  0525-3306 , pp. 272-274.
  51. ^ Codex Iustinianus. 4, 40, 1.
  52. ^ A b Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. Volume 33, 1990, pp. 219-221.
  53. ↑ Codex Iustinianus 11, 9.3.
  54. ↑ Cae (ciI) lius Firminianus Lactantius: Divinae institutiones 4, 7, 6. on the whole: Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire. 3rd, unchanged edition. Darmstadt 1980, pp. 167-169.
  55. ↑ Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire. 3rd, unchanged edition, Darmstadt 1980, pp. 175-184.
  56. ↑ Codex Theodosianus 10, 21, 3; Codex Iustinianus 11, 9, 4; In addition: Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. Volume 33, 1990, pp. 225-227, 219.
  57. ^ A b Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art . Volume 3. Verlag Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 437-444.
  58. ↑ Andreas Alföldi: The monarchical representation in the Roman Empire . 3rd, unchanged edition. Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1980, p. 267 .
  59. ↑ Codex Iustinianus 1, 23; in addition : Gerhard Steigerwald: The purple varieties in Diocletian's price edict from the year 301. In: Byzantinische Forschungen. 15 (1990), ISSN  0525-3306 , pp. 251-252.
  60. ^ Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege: Yearbook for antiquity and Christianity. Volume 33, 1990, p. 212, note 29, p. 219.
  61. ^ Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingship of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries, Masch. Diss. theol. Freiburg im Breisgau 1965, pp. 118–121.
  62. ^ Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art . Volume 3. Verlag Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 475-477.
  63. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingship of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries. Masch. Diss. Theol. Freiburg im Breigau 1965, pp. 83–87.
  64. ^ Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art . Volume 3. Verlag Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 455-469.
  65. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingship of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries, Diss. Theol., Freiburg 1965, pp. 121–125.
  66. ^ Scriptores historiae Augustae, Vopiscus: Aurelianus . 13, 3.
  67. ^ Richard Delbrueck : The Consular Diptychs and related monuments . In: Studies on late antique art history . tape 2 . Berlin / Leipzig 1929, pp. 53 .
  68. ↑ Gerhard Steigerwald: The Kingship of Mary in Literature and Art of the First Six Centuries. Masch. Diss. theol., Freiburg im Breisgau 1965, p. 109.
  69. ↑ Richard Delbrueck : Late antique imperial portraits from Constantinus Magnus to the end of the western empire (= studies on late antique art history. 8). Walter de Gruyter publishing house, Berlin / Leipzig 1933, p. 84 (Helena), p. 86–87 (Constantia and Fausta).
  70. ↑ Codex Theodosianus 10, 21, 3.
  71. ↑ Codex Theodosianus 10, 21, 3 (3–4).
  72. ↑ Codex Theodosianus 10, 21, 3 (2-3); on the whole: Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. 33: 227-235 (1990).
  73. ↑ Codex Iustinianus 11, 9, 4; in addition: Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. 33 (1990), p. 236.
  74. ^ Gerhard Steigerwald: A picture of the mother of the Emperor Justinian in San Vitale in Ravenna (547)? In: Ulrike Lange Reiner Sörries (Hrsg.): Christian archeology. From the Orient to the Rhine . tape 3 . JH Röll, Dettelbach 1997, ISBN 3-927522-47-3 , p. 123-145 .
  75. ^ Richard Delbrueck : The consular diptychs and related monuments (= studies on late antique art history. 2). Verlag Walter de Gruyter Berlin / Leipzig 1929, pp. 53–54.
  76. ^ Richard Delbrueck : The consular diptychs and related monuments (= studies on late antique art history. 2). Verlag Walter de Gruyter Berlin / Leipzig 1929, p. 52.
  77. ^ Gerhard Steigerwald: Purple robes of biblical and ecclesiastical persons as carriers of meaning in early Christian art. In: Hereditas. Studies on the Ancient Church History. 16. Bonn 1999, ZDB -ID 849204-9 , pp. 191-195.
  78. ↑ Codex Theodosianus 10, 21, 3; Codex Iustinianus 11, 9, 4. In addition: Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. 33, 1990, pp. 225-227, 219.
  79. ^ Gerhard Steigerwald: The imperial purple privilege. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity. Volume 33, 1990, pp. 222-225, 227-235.
  80. ^ Otto Mazal: purple manuscripts . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages . tape 6 . Artemis, Munich / Zurich 1996, Sp. 332-333 .
  81. ↑ P. Ovidius Naso: Tristia 1, 1, 5.
  82. ^ Marcus Valerius Martialis: Epigrammata 1, 1, 5.
  83. ^ Otto Mazal: purple manuscripts. In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages. Volume 6. Artemis, Munich / Zurich 1996, Sp. 332.
  84. ^ Otto Mazal: purple manuscripts . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages . tape 7 , 1995, Sp. 332-333 .
  85. ↑ Historia Augusta: Julius Capitolinus: Maximini . 30, 4.
  86. ↑ Publius Optatianus Porphyrius: Panegyricus in Constantinum 1–4.
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  88. ↑ 80. Constitutio, see Patrologia Graeca . Volume 107, 587C-590A. - Basilica 19, 1, 82.
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  90. ^ Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art. Volume 3. Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Col. 424-428.
  91. ^ Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art. Volume 3. Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Col. 420-424.
  92. ^ Elisabeth Piltz: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art. Volume 3. Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Col. 428-443.
  93. ^ Klaus Wessel: Insignia . In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art . tape 3 . Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 476 .
  94. ^ Klaus Wessel: Insignia. In: Real Lexicon of Byzantine Art. Volume 3. Anton Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1978, Sp. 480-485.
  95. ↑ See figure Christos Pantocrator with Emperor Constantine IX. and Empress Zoe on both sides, mosaic, Constantinople, Hagia Sophia , see Zoe (Byzantium) (11th century).
  96. ↑ For the section see Carlchristoph Brühl: Purpururkunde. In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages . Volume 7. Artemis publishing house, Stuttgart / Munich 1996, Sp. 333–334.
  97. ↑ Carl Christoph Brühl: From the Middle Ages and diplomacy . tape 2 . Munich 1989, p. 610-611 .
  98. ↑ Carl Christoph Brühl . Rogerii II regis Diplomata Latina . 1987, 48.
  99. ↑ Carlchristoph Brühl: purple certificates . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages . tape 7 . Artemis, Stuttgart / Munich 1996, Sp. 334 .
  100. ↑ The section after: Christoph Reinicke: Purpur / Western area. In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages . Volume 7. Stuttgart 1996, Col. 332.

Remarks

  1. ↑ The explanations are based on the research of Inge Boesken Kanold and the contents of Wikipedia “ Purpurküpe ”.
  2. ↑ As an example, the Loros of Regina Maria on the mosaic in Durres, amphitheater, chapel, around 630 (Queen Mary). He probably has the empress's Loros as a model.
  3. ↑ E.g. Nikephorus III. and Maria von Alanien (1074-1081), miniature, Homélies de Jean Chrysostome, Bibliothèque nationale de France Manuscript Coislin 79 folio 2 to verso see Maria Bagrationi .
  4. ↑ Mary of Antioch, miniature, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (1180–1183) see Maria von Antiochia .