Saarbrücken school

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The Saarbrücker Schule is a group of researchers led by the religious scholar Karl-Heinz Ohlig who investigated the emergence of Islam using the historical-critical method , the standard scientific method for analyzing historical texts, as well as the methods of other scientific subjects, e.g. B. Numismatics, explored.

description

The Saarbrücken School of Islamic Studies applies the historical-critical method to all facts of the early history of Islam and the Koran . The early history of Islam handed down in the so-called traditional literature is not regarded as a historical source , but as a literary product of the time in which it was written down for certain political, theological, literary or other reasons. In the light of this research, the emergence of the Islamic religion turns out to be a process that had dragged on for more than two centuries. The concentration of power in the Arab Empire , the beginning of the Arab calendar, the reconstruction and construction of sacred buildings such as the St. John's Basilica and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the so-called Prophet's Mosque in Medina and the Kaaba in Mecca , the composition and use of the Koran, the Islamic calendar , the writing of a life story of the Arab prophet, the establishment of a pilgrimage in Mecca, the development of traditional literature and Islamic law are elements of the new world religion , for which researchers at the Saarbrücken School have determined different origins than this is what the traditional literature asserts. As a result, the early history of the Arab Empire presents itself as the creative process of the creation of an imperial belief by the elite of the Arab Empire, in which syncretistic - predominantly Christian - conditions in dealing with Byzantium , rabbinic Judaism and the culture of the Sassanid Empire , including Buddhist ones Elements were formed into a new world religion. According to the knowledge of the Saarbrücken school, the traditional idea of ​​an Arab prophet with a revelation received in Mecca and Medina in the years 610–632 is not at the beginning of this process, but represents a middle stage of development that dates to the 8th Christian century.

precursor

Already Ignaz Goldziher , Joseph Schacht , Günter Lüling , Suliman Bashear , Yehuda Nevo , John Wansbrough , Patricia Crone and Michael Cook had held the opinion that the traditional report does not correspond to the actual course of history. With Inârah, an interdisciplinary research group has taken on this topic for the first time.

history

The Saarbrücken School goes to the religious scholar Prof. Dr. Karl-Heinz Ohlig, who, in the course of his retirement in 2006 at the Saarland University , gathered a multidisciplinary group of researchers who founded the non-profit association “Inârah eV - Institute for Research into the Early History of Islam and the Koran” in 2007 . This group, which includes, besides Ohlig, the orientalist Gerd-Rüdiger Puin , the philologists Markus Groß , Christoph Luxenberg and Robert Kerr, and the numismatist Volker Popp, held six specialist conferences in 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2018 and 2019 who have presented over 50 researchers, whose work has so far been published in nine anthologies (Inârah 1–9). There are also numerous smaller articles in the Saarbrücken magazine "imprimatur".

Reception history

The work of the Saarbrücken school represents its own multidisciplinary corpus of research literature, the effect of which on the numerous subject areas concerned cannot yet be foreseen. A broader scientific discussion of the theses and results of Inârah is still pending.

Individual theses and research results from Inârah

  • The name Muhammad originally did not designate a person, but a Christological predicate (Popp, Luxenberg, Ohlig Thomas).
  • Alleged mentions of Muhammad, Muslims or Islam in works of the oriental Middle Ages do not refer to an Arab prophet, follower of a new religion or a new belief (Ohlig).
  • The genealogy of the Arab prophet and his family, the Quraish , is unhistorical; it can be stated at what point it becomes historical (Dequin).
  • The life story of the Arab prophet comes largely from the life of Abū Muslim (Dequin).
  • Mecca and Medina were part of the South Arabic literary culture, and other North Arabic languages ​​were spoken there that were not forerunners of classical Arabic . This area can therefore not be regarded as the Koran's emergence territory. Conceivably, however, to accept the inhabitants of Hatra or other places in northern Arabia who were deported to the east of the Sassanid Empire. (Kerr).
  • The Arabic of the Koran contains grammatical elements that point to Central Asia (large).
  • The Koran contains linguistic features that suggest a Syro-Aramaic model (Luxenberg).
  • Names and terms from the Koran that are fundamental to Islamic self-understanding such as Mecca, Badr, Huris (virgins of paradise) turn out to be misreadings or unfounded interpretations (Luxenberg).
  • The Koran was edited around 700 under the ruler ʿAbd al-Malik under the direction of his advisor al-Ḥağğāğ ibn Yūsuf (de Prémare).
  • The examination of the Koranic text is still far from a critical edition (Gerd-Rüdiger Puin).
  • It is not possible to determine the age of parchment with the help of the radiocarbon method, because the share of soil respiration and the carbonate subsoil in the built-in carbon is different in the pastures that were once used to extract the parchment. This must be taken into account when dating Koran manuscripts (Dequin).
  • With the Alexander / Ḏū l-Qarnayn material, the Koran contains a material that is younger than the lifetime of the Arab prophet claimed by traditional literature; nevertheless there are versions of this which are older than the Koran in terms of text history (Popp, Causse).
  • The so-called “ mysterious letters ” of the Koran can be interpreted as the remains of a Syrian Christian liturgy (Luxenberg).
  • The oldest layer of the Koran (about a third of the text) contains hymn-like Christian stanzas in the sense of Lüling, the structure and meaning of which were later changed through additions in the direction of an “Islamic reinterpretation” (Younes).
  • Today's text of the Koran is the result of an editorial revision; In individual cases one can try to work out the original form and thus gain an insight into the mind and soul of the author (Kropp).
  • The work of Laktanz contains a number of theological lines of thought which correspond to those in the Koran (Gobillot).
  • The Lord's Supper mentioned in the Koran must have been a kind of Manichean or Paulikian Eucharistic meal that came closest to the Paschal or Bèma festival (Luxenberg, van Reeth).
  • The Koran is not a dogmatic, but a consensus-oriented text that had formulated minimal compromises in religious issues of the time (Kalisch).
  • Theological terms in Koranic texts come from several older religious milieus: Old Testament prophetic books, Jewish Merkhaba mysticism, Christian Logos teachings, Babylonian beliefs, Enoch literature, Anabaptist rituals. The Koran turns out to be a metatext that provides insights into the diverse beliefs of the Umayyad period. In the Abbasid period this legacy was partly no longer understood, partly reinterpreted (Popp).
  • With mathematical methods it can be shown that the Koran had about 50 authors (Walter).
  • A Koran palimpsest found in Sanaa contains numerous deviations from the standard text (Elisabeth Puin).
  • Around the year 820, verse 33:37 was added to the Koran in order to religiously anchor a politically motivated ban on adoption. This verse mentions Zayd ibn Ḥāriṯa, who in traditional literature is considered to be the adopted son of the Arab prophet. Both the adoption and the marriage of Zayd with Zaynab, their divorce and remarriage to the Arab prophet are missing in the older life descriptions of the Arab prophet and were only brought into the world in connection with the succession of the ruler al-Ma'mūn (Dequin) .
  • The inscriptions on early Islamic coins are usually to be read as religious and political slogans, not as proper names of Arab rulers and governors (Popp).
  • The origin of the Arab era in 622 goes back to the victory of Heraclius over the Sasanids at that time, in which the Arab elites of the Byzantine East had achieved self-government (Popp).
  • The Meccan pilgrimage ritual is essentially similar to the Buddhist one and must have been taken over from Buddhism (large).
  • The establishment of the pilgrimage in Mecca took place immediately after the Abbasid seizure of power based on the model of the Buddhist Nowbahar near Balch / Mazar-e Sharif (Dequin).
  • The Islamic calendar is the result of turning back and forth from Judaism; The date of the so-called Hijra , which is identical to Yom Kippur (Dequin), testifies to this as a relic .
  • A prerequisite for the emergence of Islam was the syncretistic religious culture of Mesopotamia, which had developed from the 3rd century onwards in the course of the expropriation of large temples by the Sasanian supremacy. Religious communities such as the Mandaeans emerged as the successors of the temple cults, which were forbidden at the time. They adopted elements of different cults that were tolerated or promoted by the supremacy without being evangelically evangelized by them. This syncretistic religious culture made it possible for Islam to incorporate Jewish and Christian elements without having emerged from these religious communities (Dequin).
  • Islam as it is known today is a product of the 3rd century Arab calendar; Traditions in the form of isnād were introduced in order to be able to better disguise the true circumstances (Kalisch).
  • The development of traditional Islamic literature follows an educational law that obscures its actual history and makes it appear older than it actually is (Dequin).
  • Buddhist traditions in Eastern Iran, where Islam developed significantly, are dogmatic (agreement of form and content in faith, negation of the will), institutional ( madrasa ) and in detail (dates from the life of the Arab prophet, name of his daughter Fatima ) entered Islam (Groß, Dequin).
  • Arabs as descendants of Ishmael are an invention of Flavius ​​Josephus ; Even in secular historiography there are only biblically influenced narratives of the ancestry of the Arabs on the basis of Greek ethnography (Kerr).
  • An “Islamic” conquest of Spain in 711 cannot be reconstructed from contemporary sources, from archaeological evidence or from later narrative chronicles; It can be assumed that the actual events took a significantly different course than the traditional literature claims (Thomas).
  • The so-called "Inscription of Zuhayr", a rock graffito near today's pilgrimage route between al-ʿUlā and al-Ḥiğr 400 km north of Medina, is a partial forgery with an inconclusive rock carving u. a. an annual date was added so that it could be related to the historically unproven ruler ʿUmar (TL 634-44) (Kerr).
  • The U. a. "Seal of the Prophet" used by the so-called "Islamic State" in its flag goes back to one of the forged letters of the Arab prophet in the 19th century, which are now kept in Istanbul's Topkapi Museum (Gerd-Rüdiger Puin).

literature

  • Karl-Heinz Ohlig , Gerd-Rüdiger Puin (eds.): The dark beginnings - new research on the origin and early history of Islam. (= Inârah. 1). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-89930-128-5 .
  • Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Ed.): The early Islam - A historical-critical reconstruction based on contemporary sources. (= Inârah. 2). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-89930-090-1 .
  • Markus Groß , Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.): Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries. (= Inârah. 3). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-89930-224-0 .
  • Markus Groß, Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.): From the Koran to Islam - Writings on the early history of Islam and the Koran. (= Inârah. 4). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-89930-269-1 .
  • Markus Groß, Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.): The emergence of a world religion I - From the Koranic movement to early Islam. (= Inârah. 5). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-89930-318-6 .
  • Markus Groß, Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.): The emergence of a world religion II - From the Koranic movement to early Islam. (= Inârah. 6). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-89930-345-2 .
  • Markus Groß, Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Ed.): The emergence of a world religion III - the holy city of Mecca - a literary fiction. (= Inârah. 7). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-89930-418-3 .
  • Markus Groß, Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.): The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - history or myth? (= Inârah. 8). Hans Schiler Verlag, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-89930-100-7 .
  • Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah. 9), Verlag Schiler & Mücke, Berlin and Tübingen 2020, ISBN 978-3-89930-215- 8 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Volker Popp, Pictorial representations from the early days of Islam (IV), in: imprimatur, Hefte 5 and 6, pp. 242–50, Saarbrücken 2004.
  2. ↑ Christoph Luxenberg, New interpretation of the Arabic inscription in the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig and Gerd-Rüdiger Puin (eds.), The Dark Beginnings - New Research on the Origin and Early History of Islam (= Inârah 1 ), p. 124–47, Tübingen and Berlin 2005.
  3. ↑ Karl-Heinz Ohlig, From Muhammad Jesus to the Prophet of the Arabs - The historicization of a Christological predicate, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Ed.), Der early Islam - A historical-critical reconstruction based on contemporary sources (= Inârah 2 ), p . 327–376, Tübingen and Berlin 2007.
  4. ↑ Johannes Thomas, once again on the mḥmd formula in the Dome of the Rock - coin inscriptions confirm the philological correctness of the interpretation by Christoph Luxenberg, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion III - The holy city of Mecca - one literary fiction (= Inârah 7 ), pp. 731–733, Tübingen and Berlin 2014.
  5. ↑ Karl-Heinz Ohlig, References to a New Religion in Christian Literature “Under Islamic Rule” ?, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Ed.), Der early Islam - A historical-critical reconstruction based on contemporary sources (= Inârah 2 ) , Pp. 223–326, Tübingen and Berlin 2007.
  6. ↑ Raymond Dequin, Early ʿAlī worship and the creation of the Abbasid worldview, in: The emergence of a world religion II - From the Koranic movement to early Islam (= Inârah 6 ), pp. 164-310 (ed.): Markus Groß, Karl- Heinz Ohlig, Tübingen and Berlin 2011.
  7. ↑ Raymond Dequin, The life of the Abū Muslim and the biography of the Arab prophet - With new approaches to the understanding of traditional Islamic literature, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - story or Myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 207–295, Tübingen and Berlin 2017.
  8. ↑ Robert M. Kerr, From Aramaic Reading Culture to Arabic Writing Culture - Can Semitic Epigraphy Tell Something About the Origin of the Koran ?, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion I - From the Koranic Movement to early Islam (= Inârah 5 ), pp. 354–76, Berlin and Tübingen 2010.
  9. ↑ Markus Groß, The Invented Arabic Relative Pronouns - A Contribution to the History of the Origin of Classical Arabic, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Eds.), The Origin of a World Religion II - From the Koranic Movement to Early Islam (= Inârah 6 ), Pp. 441–552, Tübingen and Berlin 2011.
  10. ↑ Christoph Luxenberg, The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran - A Contribution to Deciphering the Koran Language, Berlin and Tübingen 2000.
  11. ↑ Christoph Luxenberg, No “Mekka” (Makka) and no “Bakka” in the Koran - on Sura 48:24 and 3:96. A philological analysis, in: imprimatur, Heft 7, Saarbrücken 2012. The same, Keine Schlacht von Badr - On Syrian letters in early Koran manuscripts, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), From the Koran to Islam - writings to the early History of Islam and the Koran (= Inârah 4 ), pp. 642–76, Tübingen and Berlin 2009. The same, The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran - A Contribution to Deciphering the Koran Language, Berlin and Tübingen 2000.
  12. ↑ Alfred-Louis de Prémare, ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān et le Processus de Constitution du Coran, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig and Gerd-Rüdiger Puin (eds.), The Dark Beginnings - New Research on the Origin and Early History of Islam (= Inârah 1 ), pp. 179–210, Tübingen and Berlin 2005.
  13. ↑ Gerd-Rüdiger Puin, The utopia of a critical Koran edition: A work report, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), pp. 516–71, Tübingen and Berlin 2008.
  14. ↑ Raymond Dequin, Zayd, the adoptive son of the Arab prophet - The Koran as a tool of the rule of the Arab Empire, Appendix II, "The Carbonate Willow Hypothesis", in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah 9 ), pp. 136-39, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.
  15. ↑ Volker Popp, A Comment on the Origin of the Alexander / Ḏū l-Qarnayn Material in the Koranic Text (Sura 18: 83-102), in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - History or Myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 199–206, Tübingen and Berlin 2017.
  16. ↑ Maurice Causse, De la méthode synoptique appliqué au Coran et au Ḥadīṯ, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion III - The holy city of Mecca - a literary fiction (= Inârah 7 ), p 619–34, Tübingen and Berlin 2014.
  17. ↑ Christoph Luxenberg, The Syrian Liturgy and the “Mysterious Letters” in the Koran - a comparative liturgy study, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), p. 411 –56, Tübingen and Berlin 2008.
  18. ↑ Munther Younes, "In Suffering" or "In Honor"? - A reinterpretation of Q 90 (al-Balad), in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion I - From the Koranic movement to early Islam (= Inârah 5 ), pp. 306–20, Berlin and Tübingen 2010.
  19. ↑ Manfred Kropp, Koranic texts as speech acts using the example of sura 85, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), From Koran to Islam - Writings on the early history of Islam and the Koran (= Inârah 4 ), p. 483– 91, Tübingen and Berlin 2009.
  20. ↑ Geneviève Gobillot, Basics of the Theology of the Koran, Foundations and Orientations, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), pp. 320–69, Tübingen and Berlin 2008.
  21. ↑ Christoph Luxenberg, The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran - A Contribution to Deciphering the Koran Language, Berlin and Tübingen 2000.
  22. ↑ JMF van Reeth, Eucharist in the Koran, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), pp. 457–60, Tübingen and Berlin 2008.
  23. ↑ Sven Kalisch, The qur'ān as a document of consensus - A contribution to the function of the qur'ān in the emergence of Islam, in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - History or myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 707–815, Berlin and Tübingen 2017.
  24. ↑ Volker Popp, From Logos to Nomos (1st part), in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah 9 ), p. 235- 293, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.
  25. ^ Jean-Jacques Walter, Analysis of the Koran Using Mathematical Code Theory, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - history or myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 851–83, Tübingen and Berlin 2017. Derselbe, Le Coran révélé par la Théorie des Codes, Paris 2014 (Dissertation Toulouse 2013).
  26. ↑ Elisabeth Puin, An early Koran palimpsest from Ṣanʿā '(DAM 01-27.1), in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), pp. 461-93, Tübingen and Berlin 2008; continued in the following Inârah volumes.
  27. ↑ Raymond Dequin, Zayd, the adoptive son of the Arab prophet - The Koran as an instrument of rule of the Arab Empire, in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as an instrument of rule (= Inârah 9 ), pp. 52-145, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.
  28. ↑ Volker Popp, Von Ugarit nach Sâmarrâ - An archaeological journey in the footsteps of Ernst Herzfeld, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Ed.), Der early Islam - A historical-critical reconstruction based on contemporary sources (= Inârah 2 ), p. 13 –222, Tübingen and Berlin 2007. The same, Maavia the Aramean and his contemporaries. Muslim historiography as a mythologization of a theological concept, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), From the Koran to Islam - Writings on the early history of Islam and the Koran (= Inârah 4 ), pp. 107–76, Tübingen and Berlin 2009.
  29. ↑ Volker Popp, The early history of Islam based on inscribed and numismatic evidence, in: Karl-Heinz Ohlig and Gerd-Rüdiger Puin (eds.), The Dark Beginnings - New Research on the Origin and Early History of Islam (= Inârah 1 ), p. 16–123, Tübingen and Berlin 2005.
  30. ↑ Markus Groß, Buddhist Influences in Early Islam? in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), pp. 220–74, Tübingen and Berlin 2008. The same, early Islam and Buddhism. New evidence, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), From the Koran to Islam - Writings on the early history of Islam and the Koran (= Inârah 4 ), pp. 347–96, Tübingen and Berlin 2009.
  31. ↑ Raymond Dequin, The life of the Abū Muslim and the biography of the Arab prophet - With new approaches to the understanding of traditional Islamic literature, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - story or Myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 207–95, Tübingen and Berlin 2017.
  32. ↑ Raymond Dequin, The Arab Prophet as a New Moses - Clues from the Early Period of the Islamic Calendar, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Eds.), The Origin of a World Religion IV - Mohammed - History or Myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 297–329, Tübingen and Berlin 2017.
  33. ↑ Raymond Dequin, Zayd, the adoptive son of the Arab prophet - The Koran as a tool of the rule of the Arab empire, Section 7, “Church formation in Mesopotamia”, in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah 9 ), pp. 115-120, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.
  34. ↑ Sven Kalisch, comments on isnād - a contribution to understanding Islamic historical construction, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion III - The holy city of Mekka - a literary fiction (= Inârah 7 ), p 292–347, Tübingen and Berlin 2014.
  35. ↑ Raymond Dequin, The life of the Abū Muslim and the biography of the Arab prophet - With new approaches to the understanding of traditional Islamic literature, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - story or Myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 207–95, Tübingen and Berlin 2017.
  36. ↑ Markus Groß, Early Islam and Buddhism. New evidence, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), From the Koran to Islam - Writings on the early history of Islam and the Koran (= Inârah 4 ), pp. 347–96, Tübingen and Berlin 2009.
  37. ↑ Raymond Dequin, The life of the Abū Muslim and the biography of the Arab prophet - With new approaches to the understanding of traditional Islamic literature, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - story or Myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 207–95, Tübingen and Berlin 2017.
  38. ↑ Robert M. Kerr, The blue flowers of Mecca - From Ishmael's city to the sanctuary of the Ishmaelites, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion III - The holy city of Mecca - a literary fiction (= Inârah 7 ), pp. 52–174, Tübingen and Berlin 2014.
  39. ↑ Johannes Thomas, Early Spanish Testimonies to Islam. Proposals for a differentiated consideration of the conflicts and the religious similarities between the east and the west of the Arab Empire, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), Schlaglichter - The first two Islamic centuries (= Inârah 3 ), p. 93–186, Tübingen and Berlin 2008. The same, Arab-Islamic historiography and its effects on historical images of al-Andalus (8th century) - source and trader problems, fictional story with Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam and the fairy tale of the Arab tribal feuds, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion I - From the Koranic movement to early Islam (= Inârah 5 ), pp. 140–232, Berlin and Tübingen 2010. Derselbe, Al-Andalus: Historiographie and archeology, in: Markus Groß and Karl-Heinz Ohlig (eds.), The emergence of a world religion IV - Mohammed - history or myth? (= Inârah 8 ), pp. 547–635, Tübingen and Berlin 2017. The same, on the two myths "decisive battle on the Guadalete (711)" and "Destruction of cities", in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed. ), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah 9 ), pp. 193-207, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.
  40. ↑ Robert M. Kerr, "Forging Ahead into the Islamic Past" - Some remarks on the inscription by Zuhayr, in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah 9 ), pp. 11-51, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.
  41. ↑ Gerd-R. Puin, Das “Siegel des Propheten”, in: Markus Groß / Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), The emergence of a world religion V - The Koran as a tool of rule (= Inârah 9 ), pp. 617-635, Berlin and Tübingen 2020.