Sahl at-Tustarī

Sahl ibn ʿAbdallāh at-Tustarī ( Arabic سهل بن عبد الله التستري; Born probably in 818 in Shushar , died in 896 in Basra ) was an Iraqi Sufi and Koran exegete . Tustarī was known to the influential mystic Dhū'n-Nūn al-Miṣrī and at times a teacher of Hallādsch . His teaching, most of which can be deduced from his commentary on the Koran, presents itself as the interlocking of different concepts of cosmology , the structure of the human soul and spiritual practice.

Tustarī's cosmology is based on the basic assumption that divine light occurs in the Prophet Mohammed , which shines on the rest of humanity in various forms. At the beginning of time, God makes a contract with mankind, which obliges them to obey God's commandments. This is made more difficult for man by the inherent dark side of the soul (nafs) , which always drives him to evil . In contrast, there are the positive inner spiritual forces, such as the heart (qalb) , the spiritual soul (nafs ar-rūḥ) and the intellect (ʿaql) , by means of which the mystic can come into contact with the divine. For this, certain ways of life are necessary, such as renouncing earthly pleasures, respecting the Koran and the Sunna as well as professing the unity of God ( Tawheed ) and trusting only in God. This culminates in the practice of dhikr , the mystic's constant recollection of the principle of God. At the highest level of the mystical path it is possible for the mystic to experience God himself. Through this experience the mystic gains the certainty that he will be received by God. In the world beyond, the mystic will live in the permanent presence of God.

Life

Sahl al-Tustari (with full name and Abu Muhammad Sahl b. 'Abd Allah b. Yūnus b.' B Īsā. 'Abd Allah b. Rafi' at-Tustari) was probably in 203/818 in the Persian Shushtar ( Khuzistan born) . There is disagreement about his date of birth, the figures vary between 200/815 and 203/818. It is also unclear whether he was of Persian or Arab descent. The fact that he often used Persian in combination with classical Arabic speaks in favor of Persian ancestry, and in favor of Arabic that his family on his mother's side descended from the Prophet. He died in 283/896. In the first decade of his life, his maternal uncle, Muḥammad b. Sawwār introduced into Islamic mysticism, who may have had connections with the Sufi Maʿrūf al-Karkhī . He also learned the exegesis of the Koran and Hadith . At this time he is said to have already performed piety rituals, such as the night watch. ʿAttār and Quschairī pass on some episodic accounts of this. Its truthfulness is, however, questionable due to the tendency in these sources to depict Sufis in hagiography .

At the age of 13, Tustarī is said to have got into a spiritual crisis. Thereupon he sought first unsuccessful advice in Basra and then traveled to the ribāt des Hamza al-ʿAbbādānī, which was in the tradition of Hasan al-Basrī . Here he learned, according to the tradition of ribāt, the attitudes and behavior of a Sufi. Here he is said to have seen a neon sign in the sky that reproduced a verse from the Koran. He then returned to Tustar, where he lived as an ascetic without great personal ties; however, he married and had a son. In 219/834 Tustarī made the pilgrimage to Mecca ( Hajj ). There he met Dhū'l-Nūn al-Miṣrī , with whom he had a far-reaching spiritual exchange. It is unclear whether there was a teacher-student relationship between the two, but the Islamic scholars Annabel and Ali Keeler see evidence of this in the Kitāb al-Lumaʿ of the Sufi scholar Abū Nasr as-Sarrādsch , Böwering also gives some evidence. It is also possible that Dhū'l-Nūn conveyed the hermetics, which came from Greco-Roman antiquity, to Tustarī. Tustarī appears to have had knowledge of astrology, alchemy and medicine that he may have acquired during this period. Dhū'l-Nūn also gave him the idea of ​​trust in God (tawakkul) .

After Dhū'l-Nūn's ​​death in 245/860, Tustarī began to spread his teaching. At this point in time he may have had his first students around, including the famous Sufi Ḥallādsch. Böwering dates the emergence of Ḥallādsch's circle of students to the years 873 to 875. Between 262/876 and 264/878 he had to flee to Basra after conflicts affecting his teaching. The chaos of war, which culminated in the capture of Tustar by the Saffarids , may have contributed to Tustarī's departure. During this time there is a report that Tustarī used the Saffarid ruler Ya'qūb b. al-Laith healed through his prayer. In Basra there was also a conflict with two Shafiite scholars, Abū Zakariyya al-Sādschī and AbūʿAbd Allāhal-Zubayrī. They took offense that Tustarī claimed the status of a saint for himself. The Islamic scholar Gerhard Böwering suspects that Tustarī had a good reputation among the Malikites and Hanbalites , while it had a bad reputation among the Shafiites. Tustarī himself did not assign himself to any of the schools of law, but may have been based in part on Hanafi views. Tustarī at that time claimed to be the evidence of God (jjjāt Allaah).

Tustarī's disciples and the Sālimīya

Tustarīs student body was reorganized after his death. A group around Abū Muḥammad ad-Jurayrī and Abū l-Ḥasan al-Muzayyin at-Tirmidhī joined the tradition of al-Junaids in Baghdad, while in Basra the Sālimīya school, named after Muḥammad b , arose from Tustarī's teaching tradition . Sālim , one of Tustarī's closest disciples. Here Muḥammads son Aḥmad is mentioned as the second founder next to his father. According to the geographer al-Muqaddasī , the group is said not to have been very interested in Islamic law ( fiqh ) , but rather to have been more concerned with asceticism and the teachings of their own school. If they were concerned with fiqh , they are said to have been influenced by Maliki, although the founder of the school is said to have been oriented towards Hanafi. Other students of Tustari were Abū Bakr al-Sidschzī, who transmitted Tustari's Tafsir, ʿUmar b. Wāṣil al-ʿAnbarī and the Hanbali theologian Ḥasan b. Chalaf al-Barbahari. The latter two preached in Baghdad after Tustari's death.

The teachings of the Sālimīya have only been passed on through their Hanbali opponents. They included the view that God contains various attributes such as being and non-being from eternity , that he is creator from eternity, and that on the day of the resurrection he becomes visible to all creatures, partly in human-like form . There was also a divergent view of the history of Iblis . Keeler and Keeler note that the rejection of the teachings of the Sālimīya seems to be due in part to misinterpretation. Likewise, the actual teaching of the school cannot be reconstructed with certainty, since the transmission of its teaching by opponents of the same is not a trustworthy source. Regarding the relationship between the teaching of the Sālimīya and the teaching of Tustarī, the Islamic scholar Tunc notes that the latter is more akin to the orthodox Sunni understanding. Much of the teaching of the Sālimīya is not addressed by Tustarī anywhere. In view of the problems mentioned in the sources on the Sālimīya and the initially only oral reproduction of the tradition of Tustarī (which makes omissions in the teaching of Tustarī, which could later have appeared in the Sālimīya, very possible), any comparison here must be viewed with caution.

Works

A number of works are ascribed to Tustarī. In the main sources of the Sufis (for example ʿAṭṭār ) he appears as the author of aphorisms and proverbs . His sayings as well as his lifestyle seem to have been passed down in part by his students, some of whom wrote a generation after him. Here, cuts were made in the wording, which was only noted in bullet points. Tustarī himself did not put anything in writing.

Tustarī have been assigned a number of now lost works in bibliographical sources of Sufi literature. There is also a considerable list of works that still exist. In the case of some early attributions, however, the authorship of Tustarī cannot be assumed with certainty. Later evidence is fragmentary and selective. The sources from the late 11th century onwards contain comparatively little new (and this new may consist in the reproduction of earlier sources that are now lost). Keeler and Keeler believe that among Tustarī's works the Tafsīr and a book on the history of the prophets (Qiṣaṣ al-Anbiyāʾ) contain his teaching particularly clearly. Due to the primary importance of the Tafsīr and the brevity of the present work, his teaching is mainly presented here using the Tafsīr.

The Tafsīr Tustarīs was passed on orally to his students and was put on paper by them with extensions. The earliest surviving manuscripts come from the 9th / 15th centuries. Century and the 10./16. Century. Some of this can be found literally in Sulamī (died 412/1021), so that it can be assumed with some certainty that the works already existed in the 11th century. Keeler and Keeler suspect that another text must have existed, since Sulamī quotes utterances that do not appear in the traditional versions of the Tafsīr.

Due to the tradition, Böwering assumes three layers of tradition in Tustarīs Tafsīr. The first consists of authentic words from Tustarī, which he uttered during his oral commentary on the Koran. The second are aphorisms and proverbs as well as mystical digressions, which were probably inserted by his students (probably Abū Bakr al-Sijzī and ʿUmar b. Wāṣil). Thirdly, there are exegesis of the Koran and the hadith as well as short episodes from Tustarī's life, which were inserted by later editors.

Procedure for the interpretation of the Koran in Tustari's Tafsīr

The Tafsīr comments on about 1000 verses (according to Kufic counting about one sixth of all verses), taken from all suras of the Koran. How Tustarī interpreted the Koran can be understood from the context in Tafsīr: The lecturer (Tustarī), according to his own understanding, gets into a state of mystical inspiration while he recites the Koran in front of his students. In this state he is given knowledge about things, some of which cannot be expressed in words. First, Tustarī explains the literal content of the verses. Then the reciter, trained in mystical topics, connects individual verses, terms or sentences with an associative utterance, which is often heavily metaphor-heavy and thus makes interpretation difficult. A further explanation follows any inquiries.

The mystical experience as the basis of the interpretation justifies one's own interpretation, whereas according to Tustarī, the Koran should not be interpreted according to one's own wishes. The Quran is viewed by Tustarī as being revealed through the heart of the Prophet. Tustarī assumes that God sent the Koran down in a structured manner and in a fourfold sense. According to Tustarī, there are four types of meanings in the Koran: 1. self-explanatory (muḥkam) , 2. metaphorical (mutashābih) , 3. permitted and forbidden (ḥalāl wa ḥarām) and 4. parabolic (amthāl) . Furthermore, a distinction is made between external (ẓāhir) and internal (bāṭin) meaning. With external meaning the pure literal sense is meant, which is repeated in the recitation, whereas the inner meaning represents the actual understanding of the meaning of the verse. The inner understanding, which can only be understood by the elect who are close to God, is not always expressible in words. Tustarī justifies this with the infinity of God's attributes.

In addition there are the terms border (ḥadd) and transcendence (maṭlaʿ) . Limit describes the limits of what is allowed and what is forbidden. Transcendence describes the state in which truth is reached through the understanding of God. There are also the esoteric Addenda Tustarīs, which are probably intended as guidelines for spiritual development. They consist of enumerations of the character traits that the mystic must acquire in order to be successful. This includes knowledge of human nature and various mystical experiences and cosmological systems.

Cosmology, predestination, eschatology

Tustarī's teaching can be presented from the starting point of events prior to the creation of the world . The starting point is the prophet, who has been in the presence of God for ages and has stood before God for millions of years without form or body. God is the source of all being and the transcendent reality (ḥaqq) . God is light (nūr) , which shines on the prophet and is caught in the light of the prophet (nūr Muḥammad). Muḥammad has had God with him in his heart (qalb) since his time. This special status of the prophet Muhebtammad raises him as the highest being after God above all other prophets and the rest of humanity. From the light of the prophet as a starting point, God creates the rest of humanity, which consequently also exists as light particles in its original state. God creates the light of the heavenly kingdom, the light of this world, the future world beyond, as well as the light of Adam and the prophets proceeding from the light of Muhammad. Likewise, the spiritual masters partake in the light of Muḥammad, whereas the lower level of spiritual disciples and seekers are created by the light of Adam. Böwering's interpretation sees in the masters the role models of the prophets and mystics and in the spiritual students the spiritual role models of humanity itself.

On the “day of the contract” God makes a contract with the prophets who have been taken from Adam's back. The prophets testify to God's rule over them with the balā ("Yes, we testify."). God tells the prophets to preach His commands. Thereafter, God gathers humanity in the form of flakes with intellects (ʿuqūl) taken from the backs of the prophets. They are also given the divine commands, whereupon the prophets testify again of God's rule for the group they have taken. Thereupon humanity returns to the loins of Adam.

Man is now between the day of contract and the day of resurrection in the created world. As a set of rules for this world, God has established which actions are good and which are bad , based on his creation of good (ḫayr) and evil (šarr) . The actions of individuals are measured against these criteria, for they agreed on the day of the contract to recognize God's rule. The classic problem of the compatibility of God's omnipotence with human responsibility comes to light. In Tustarī's teaching, man is not capable of autonomous action, since it depends entirely on God's will whether he is able to obey the divine commandments. But he has the possibility to keep God's commandments or to act contrary to them. Even before the creation of the world and of the individual, God determines all future actions of the individual and has known these actions for eternity due to his omniscience. This knowledge is one of the attributes of God. If man obeys God's commandments, he is included in God's protection and God grants him success and help; if he does not follow them, he will be expelled from this protection and he will be denied success and help.

In his existence in this world, the insight into his fate and the legitimacy of his actions is closed to man. So man does not know whether he is damned or destined for good and for this reason lives in constant fear of God. Man can succumb to the temptation to believe in his own power and strength by means of which he wants to come closer to God. God leads people to the mistaken assumption that they are already in God's security. Tustarī mentions Adam as an example, who would have liked to stay in the garden for all eternity. By wanting to do so, however, he yielded to Satan's advice . Another reason why people are not able to see whether they will be among the righteous on Judgment Day is that they cannot foresee the status in which they will die, i.e. whether they will be in the time before their death will not sin yet. Man must therefore be careful to constantly renew the contract with God by recognizing the divine unity (Tauḥīd) and asking for God's grace in prayer and repenting .

The events after the end of the world of creation lead man to the third of his forms of existence. Böwering describes this status as post-existential. On the day of judgment, God judges people. While those found not to be righteous will be condemned to hellfire , the righteous experience God for themselves and live in Paradise in the face of the divine presence. If man has come to great experience as a mystic, he experiences God by bypassing the prophet in close proximity to him as a friend of God. Accordingly, while the normal righteous long for Paradise, the successful mystics long only for God himself. The spiritual masters see the light of the Prophet, whereas the disciples see the light of Adam. This also follows from the fact that teachers were created by the light of Adam and the students by the light of teachers.

The order of the soul, spiritual psychology

The inner structure of the human being with Tustarī is, as with other mystics also, called spiritual psychology. Human nature is complex and Tustarī uses a number of different terms taken from the Koran. The incoherence due to the history of the origins of the tafsir can be seen in the sometimes inconsistent naming and varying complex divisions. According to Tustarī, the human soul , the human self (nafs) , is the place of interaction with God. It exists twofold, namely once as the positive self, the divine light in man, and once as the negative self, the part of the human spirit directed towards the earth. Here the positive nafs directed towards God is associated with light, the negative self directed towards earth with darkness. These two forces are in constant battle. The positive self is described with the terms nafs ar-rūḥ (occasionally just rūḥ ), the spiritual power, and the heart (qalb) or mind (rūḥ) directed to God , the negative, earth-directed self with the terms or nafs at-tab ' or just nafs , translated as lower self. To be distinguished from nafs aṭ- ṭab ebenfalls (natural self) is the term ṭab ' (instinct), which also belongs to the dark side. Tustarī refines the terminology in some places by using terms such as the self inciting evil (an-nafs al-ammāra bi'l-sūʾ) , the self -blaming self (an-nafs al-lawwāma) or the peaceful self (an-nafs al-muṭmaʾinna) . The latter is on the positive side and is achieved through spiritual practice and divine grace .

Significant here is the triple breakdown of the positive side into heart (qalb) , intellect (ʿaql) and spiritual self (nafs ar-rūḥ) , all of which stem from pre-existence . These are to be understood as different ways of realizing God. Tustarī speaks accordingly of the intuition of the mind, the understanding of the intellect and the insight of the heart, through which the seeing of God becomes possible. All these spiritual powers are gathered in the spiritual self and were connected with the natural self (aṭ-ṭabʿ) at creation . They are actualized in man through virtuous action.

The intellect is connected to the throne of God through its seat, the spiritual self, through the Holy Spirit. Like the soul, the intellect is divided into two parts: a dark part striving for earth and a part striving for existence on the other side (āḫira). The intellect is closely related to the spiritual self. In the process of preventing negative actions, the intellect “reminds” the heart of God's way. The heart, which is located in the chest (ṣadr) , which serves as the connection between body and heart, is, according to Tustarī, the place of belief in people. Here the unity of God becomes reality, as does love and closeness to God. The heart is focused on God only, not on this world. The heart must be saved from being preoccupied with anything other than God; if the heart is bad, lust will overtake it and it will slide into sin without God's guidance.

Man receives the lower self at the moment of his creation, whereas he already has the components of the spirit ( rūḥ , qalb , ʿaql ) in preexistence and has been the principle that leads man to evil since his creation. The creation of man is described by Tustarī as follows: God informs the angels of his plan of creation, he appoints Adam as viceroy over the world, informs him about the nature of his soul and commands him to enter paradise and not from the tree of knowing to eat. Then Iblis visits paradise and tries Adam. At this point the battle between the heart (used here for the trinity of heart, intellect and spirit) and the lower self in the human soul begins. The lower self leads to evil through four points: the desire for self-enjoyment, man's claim to autonomy, the seduction of man into following his own inspiration, and through the fact that he is the companion of Satan. Instinct and lower desires suppress the mind and try to keep it away from God. Man should act against this with concentration on God, observance of the law and spiritual studies.

In Tustarī's cosmology the soul goes through three distinct stages, already described above: the phase of pre-existence, where it is in spiritual perfection, since the lower self has not yet been connected to it, the phase in the created world, where the lower self dominates, and the phase of the world to come, when the righteous are completely turned to God by their hearts.

Mystical practice

The mystical practice of Tustarī is based on the framework conditions described in the previous sections. The central point here is that the human soul is the seat of the mystery of God (sirr Allāh) . This secret was implanted by God on the day of the contract in the human soul, which serves as an intermediary between God and man. This secret, accessible only to the mystic, is God's conversation with him, through which he can experience God's rulership over himself. According to Tustarī, the mystery of God cannot be present in the world in an openly accessible manner for all people, since otherwise the divine world order, which includes religion and prophecy, would be made superfluous and thus destroyed. It is up to the prophets to introduce ordinary people to the mystery in the form of religion. The mystic, on the other hand, is able to recognize this inner secret and move the soul into a state of renewal of its flawless form on the day of the contract. This renewal is achieved as the heart gradually ascends to God's throne (symbolizing the rule of God). The human being gives himself completely to the spiritual forces and thereby overrides the self-centeredness of the soul. Here the term ma'rifa is understood on the one hand as mystical knowledge, but on the other hand also as recognition of the rule of God by man. The path to knowing the mystery is essentially determined by the divine inspiration when reciting the Koran. In the process of reciting the secret becomes apparent and reaches the heart and the bodily organs. The state of man changes and man becomes enlightened. The secret is realized in man himself.

The human being comes closer to his pre-existent status as a particle of light with an intellect. The mystic passes through several stages and at the climax of the mystical experience overcomes the mediating prophecy by entering into direct contact with God, which was previously only possible via the detour of the prophets. After judgment day, the righteous person will be able to experience the full mystery of God. This state is described as a permanent encounter of the secret with itself.

The mystic therefore participates in the outflow of divine light; he is permeated by God because he is one of God's chosen and friends. A distinction must be made here between the masters, who were chosen by before the creation of the world and who reach the highest stages by becoming part of it, and the ordinary people who try to reach God by fulfilling their religious duties. There is a difference between the prophets (Anbiyā ') and the friends (awliyā') . The prophets are above friends spiritually. The mystical understanding of the Koran is only possible for the friends of God. It is a gift from God. The friends of God will not be judged for their actions on Judgment Day, but will go straight to Paradise.

Practices of Perfection

In the mystical path, it is important to control the lower self and avert its temptations. Tustarī exemplifies this with the contrast between jihad as a struggle, one of the secular virtues in obeying religious commandments, and control of the lower self, which is far more difficult to achieve. The latter is essentially achieved through repentance and repentance . The first step in this process is to change objectionable actions into righteous ones. Man is required to constantly check himself for errors and to correct them, not only as beginners, but also as advanced learners on the mystical path. Specifically, this is promoted through ascetic practices such as fasting , abstinence from social intercourse and nocturnal prayer. Abstinence is required in the enjoyable things in life such as good food, good clothing, etc.

It is also important to imitate (iqtidāʾ) the example of the Prophet (sunna). Together with the Koran, the Sunna forms the model for correct human action. Other outstanding personalities such as martyrs can also be considered worth emulating. Underlying this is the desire to be close to those who are close to God (awliyāʾ). Both the Koran and the Prophet are important intercessors . According to Tustarī, the Qur'an belongs as knowledge to God's original attributes, which were already present before creation. The Koran itself is God's speech, so it is not created.

Dhikr

In order to overcome the self-centeredness and self-assurance of man as described above, Tustarī names three spiritual virtues: trust in God (tawakkul) , full awareness of God (taqwā) and sincerity (iḫlāṣ) . Trust in God denotes complete belief in the omnipotence of God and the negation of one's own abilities as well as acceptance of one's own future predetermined by God. The awareness of God means the constant assurance of the existence of God. Tustarī says that whoever wants to experience God's favor must always be aware of God. Sincerity denotes purity of one's own intentions and, like becoming conscious of God, is often associated with the term yaqīn , which will be discussed later . These virtues are aspects of the constant (re) memory of God (Dhikr) . The practice of Dhikr is the central point on the mystical path. Dhikr can be described as a process of ongoing remembrance of God, whereby the actualization of the presence of God in the innermost being of man is made possible. It helps people to remember that God is in their soul. Dhikr should not only emerge during prayer, i.e. during religious ritual, but should exist in every moment of existence.

Dhikr is understood by Tustarī as one of the two practices of self-preservation, namely the spiritual for the spiritual self and the intellect and heart in contrast to (edible) food, which becomes relevant for the natural self. So Dhikr is the basis of maintenance of the spiritual. In the latter case, the terms “prohibited” and “permitted” become relevant. Dhikr also has an ethical component, because remembering God leads to a distance from the cursed world. The highest form of Dhikr is a state in which the mystic is completely detached from himself and remembers God through God, i.e. denies everything that is his own and is overwhelmed by divine experience. This is found in other Sufis as the concept of self-destruction (fanāʾ) . The mystic lives in the practice of the dhikr in the reactivation of his past before creation and in anticipation of his future. The process of Dhikr, according to divine omnipotence, is brought about by God himself in man.

Forms of mystical knowledge

Tustarī uses three terms to identify specific knowledge in the mystical realm: ma'rifa (mystical knowledge or gnosis ), fahm (understanding) and ʿilm (knowledge). Gnosis is placed in the heart by God in the form of light. If God is angered by the actions of the person concerned, the light of gnosis is removed from his heart. By means of gnosis it is possible to have a premonition of God and to understand the true meaning of the Koran. Understanding is placed in the intellect. Understanding is one of the preexisting gifts of God to man in order to overcome the lower self. It is often used in a special way of understanding the Koran. In contrast to Gnosis, it is limited like knowledge. Another term that Tustarī introduces is knowledge of God. This consists in the mystic gaining outward knowledge of God, the Sunnah and the Prophet. Knowledge is used by Tustarī as the counterpart of ignorance, with light being knowledge and ignorance being darkness.

Security and commitment to Tawheed

In contrast to the self-confident person who trusts in their own autonomy, the mystic is able to gain the security (yaqīn) of being regarded by God as righteous through the spiritual experiences available to him . Here Tustarī sees a spectrum of ranks of security given, with a higher rank on the day of judgment being of greater advantage. Man achieves the status of security by ignoring preoccupation with all worldly matters and dedicating his thoughts to God alone. Security is achieved through the light of security (nūr al-yaqīn) , which comes from the divine light in man.

There are three types of security: exposure, visual viewing, and contemplative participation. They mean:

1. the mystic experiences what was previously hidden and he could only experience vaguely in faith
2. a glimpse of supersensible realities (such as divine infinity) limited to a moment
3. contemplative participation, everything but God is eliminated from experience

In the world of this world, the mystic experiences all three types of security and experiences an echo of the divine infinity, which will be visible to him in the future in the encounter with God. On the day of resurrection, these three certainties will allow the mystic to perceive the divine.

Another important principle of Tustarī is the oneness of God (Tauḥīd) . This is not just about pure belief, but the fact of God's oneness also influences mystical practice. The heart is the place where the confession of God's unity finds its place.

The place from which the confession of the Tauḥīd originates is the already mentioned heart of the Prophet. The correct conduct of the believer before God is the recognition of divine unity and the example of the prophet. On the day of the treaty, the tauḥīd is included in the beliefs. On the day of the resurrection, the mystic is finally redeemed from his servants and experiences the encounter with God. As mentioned, the final state is God's vision.

literature

• Gerhard Böwering : Sahl al-Tustarī in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition , Vol. VIII, pp. 840a-841b.
• Gerhard Böwering: The Mystical Vision of Existence in Classical Islam. The Qur'ānic Hermeneutics of the Ṣūfī Sahl at-Tustarī (d. 283/896) . Berlin-New York 1980.
• C. Tunc: Sahl b. ʿAbdallāh at-Tustarī and the Sālimīya . Bonn 1970.
• Alexander Knysh: Islamic Mysticism: A Short History. Brill, Leiden, 2010. pp. 83-88.
• Michael A. Sells: Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qurʾan, Miʿraj, Poetic and Theological Writings . Paulist Press, New York, 1996. pp. 89-97.
• Annabel Keeler and Ali Keeler (translator): Tafsīr al-Tustarī. Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought , Amman 2011 (Great Commentaries on the Holy Qurʾān) , Louisville, KY, Fons Vitae ( Online )

supporting documents

1. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 44.
2. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 44-5.
3. ↑ Keeler, Tafsir, XV.
4. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XVI.
5. ↑ Keeler, Tafsir, XVI
6. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 50-1; Keeler, Tafsīr, XVI.
7. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XVII.
8. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XVI
9. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision 62
10. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XIX.
11. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 61
12. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 65.
13. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 66.
14. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 64.
15. ↑ Tunc, Tustarī, 23-4.
16. ↑ Tunc, Tustarī, 24; Böwering, Mystical Vision, 66.
17. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXII.
18. ↑ Tunc, Tustarī, 35.
19. ↑ Tunc, Tustarī, 43.
20. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXIV.
21. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 8-18.
22. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 18.
23. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 34
24. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 35.
25. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXIII.
26. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXV.
27. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXV.
28. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 129.30.
29. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXV. A compilation of the most important verses in connection with the doctrines of Tustarī assigned to them is offered by Böwering, Mystical Vision, 273-6.
30. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 136-7.
31. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXIX.
32. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 137.
33. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 138.
34. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXVII.
35. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXVIII.
36. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 152.
37. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 150.
38. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 154.
39. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 155.
40. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXIII-XXIV.
41. ↑ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 179; Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXIII.
42. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXIV.
43. ↑ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 183-4.
44. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXVI.
45. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 165.
46. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 165.
47. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 153-4.
48. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXVIII.
49. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 185-6.
50. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXVIII-XXXIX.
51. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 247.
52. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 248.
53. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XLVI.
54. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XLII.
55. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 250.
56. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 260.
57. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 242.
58. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 261
59. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 188.
60. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 186.
61. ↑ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 197.
62. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 200
63. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 200.
64. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 232.
65. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 234.
66. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, L.
67. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XXXI.
68. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, LVI.
69. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, LVIII.
70. ↑ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 204-5.
71. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 205-6.
72. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XLIII.
73. ↑ Keeler, Tafsīr, XLIV
74. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 209-10
75. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 211-5.
76. ^ Böwering, Mystical Vision, 225.

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