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{{short description|Indian-American microbiologist}}
{{Short description|Bengali-American microbiologist (1938–2020)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox scientist
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty
|name = Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty
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|caption = Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty at Science City, Kolkata on 8 Nov. 2009
|caption = Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty at Science City, Kolkata on 8 Nov. 2009
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1938|04|04|df=y}}
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1938|04|04|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Sainthia]], [[West Bengal]], [[British India]]
|birth_place = [[Sainthia]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|07|10|1938|04|04|df=y}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davey |first1=Neil |last2=Rader |first2=Randall Ray |last3=Chakravarti |first3=Debabrata |title=Ananda Mohan 'Al' Chakrabarty 1938–2020 |journal=Nature Biotechnology |date=January 2021 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=18–19 |doi=10.1038/s41587-020-00785-4|s2cid=229300870 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|07|10|1938|04|04|df=y}}
|death_place =[[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], United States<ref>{{cite web |title=Remembering Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty |url=https://mcb.illinois.edu/news/article/589/ |publisher=The School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign |access-date=4 April 2021 |date=2 September 2020}}</ref>
|death_place =Illinois, USA
|residence =
|residence =
|citizenship =
|citizenship =
|nationality = Indian
|nationality = Indian
|ethnicity = India
|field = [[Microbiology]]
|field = [[Microbiology]]
|work_institutions =
|work_institutions =
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}}
}}


'''Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty''' ({{lang-bn|আনন্দমোহন চক্রবর্তী}} ''Ānandamōhan Cakrabartī''), Ph.D. (4 April 1938 – 10 Jul 2020) was an [[Bengali American|Indian American]] [[microbiologist]], scientist, and researcher, most notable for his work in [[directed evolution]] and his role in developing a [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] organism using [[plasmid]] transfer while working at [[GE]], the patent for which<ref name=patent>[http://www.google.com/patents/US4259444 US Patent 4,259,444]</ref> led to landmark Supreme Court case, ''[[Diamond v. Chakrabarty]]''.
'''Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty''' ({{lang-bn|আনন্দমোহন চক্রবর্তী}} ''Ānandamōhan Cakrabartī''), PhD (4 April 1938 – 10 Jul 2020) was an [[Bengali American|Indian American]] [[microbiologist]], scientist, and researcher, most notable for his work in [[directed evolution]] and his role in developing a [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] organism using [[plasmid]] transfer while working at [[GE]], the patent for which<ref name=patent>[http://www.google.com/patents/US4259444 US Patent 4,259,444]</ref> led to landmark Supreme Court case, ''[[Diamond v. Chakrabarty]]''.


==Early life==
==Early life==
Ananda (generally called "Al" by scientific colleagues) Chakrabarty was born in [[Sainthia]] on 4 April 1938. He attended Sainthia High School, [[Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira]] and [[St. Xavier's College, Calcutta]]—in that order—during the course of his undergraduate education. Prof. Chakrabarty received his [[Ph.D]]. from the [[University of Calcutta]] in [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]] in 1965.
Ananda (generally called "Al" by scientific colleagues) Chakrabarty was born in [[Sainthia]] on 4 April 1938. He attended Sainthia High School, [[Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira]] and [[St. Xavier's College, Calcutta]]—in that order—during the course of his undergraduate education. Prof. Chakrabarty received his [[PhD]]. from the [[University of Calcutta]] in [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]] in 1965.


== Scientific work ==
== Scientific work ==
Prof. Chakrabarty genetically engineered<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.72.9.3647 |pmid=1103151 |year=1975 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |last2=Mylroie |last3=Friello |last4=Vacca |title=Transformation of Pseudomonas putida and Escherichia coli with plasmid-linked drug-resistance factor DNA |volume=72 |issue=9 |pages=3647–51 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=JR |first3=DA |first4=JG |pmc=433053}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.71.9.3410 |pmid=4530312 |year=1974 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |last2=Friello |title=Dissociation and interaction of individual components of a degradative plasmid aggregate in Pseudomonas |volume=71 |issue=9 |pages=3410–4 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=DA |pmc=433782}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4829926 |year=1974 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |title=Dissociation of a degradative plasmid aggregate in Pseudomonas |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=815–20 |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |pmc=246827}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4823075 |year=1974 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |title=Transcriptional control of the expression of a degradative plasmid in Pseudomonas |volume=3 |pages=157–65 |journal=Basic life sciences |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-4529-9_13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4745436 |year=1973 |last1=Shaham |first1=M |last2=Chakrabarty |last3=Gunsalus |title=Camphor plasmid-mediated chromosomal transfer in Pseudomonas putida |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=944–9 |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |first2=AM |first3=IC |pmc=285467}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.3.885 |pmid=4351810 |year=1973 |last1=Rheinwald |first1=JG |last2=Chakrabarty |last3=Gunsalus |title=A transmissible plasmid controlling camphor oxidation in Pseudomonas putida |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=885–9 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=AM |first3=IC |pmc=433381}}</ref> a new species of ''[[Pseudomonas]]'' [[bacteria]] ("the [[petroleum|oil]]-eating bacteria") in 1971 while working for the [[Research & Development]] Center at [[GE|General Electric Company]] in [[Schenectady]], New York.<ref name="times">{{cite news |title=Environment: Oil-Eating Bug |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917877,00.html |date=22 September 1975 |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=28 September 2009}}</ref>
Prof. Chakrabarty genetically engineered<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.72.9.3647 |pmid=1103151 |year=1975 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |last2=Mylroie |last3=Friello |last4=Vacca |title=Transformation of Pseudomonas putida and Escherichia coli with plasmid-linked drug-resistance factor DNA |volume=72 |issue=9 |pages=3647–51 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=JR |first3=DA |first4=JG |pmc=433053|bibcode=1975PNAS...72.3647C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.71.9.3410 |pmid=4530312 |year=1974 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |last2=Friello |title=Dissociation and interaction of individual components of a degradative plasmid aggregate in Pseudomonas |volume=71 |issue=9 |pages=3410–4 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=DA |pmc=433782|bibcode=1974PNAS...71.3410C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4829926 |year=1974 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |title=Dissociation of a degradative plasmid aggregate in Pseudomonas |volume=118 |issue=3 |pages=815–20 |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |doi=10.1128/JB.118.3.815-820.1974 |pmc=246827}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |pmid=4823075 |year=1974 |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=AM |chapter=Transcriptional Control of the Expression of a Degradative Plasmid in Pseudomonas |title=Control of Transcription |volume=3 |pages=157–65 |journal=Basic Life Sciences |doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-4529-9_13|isbn=978-1-4613-4531-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4745436 |year=1973 |last1=Shaham |first1=M |last2=Chakrabarty |last3=Gunsalus |title=Camphor plasmid-mediated chromosomal transfer in Pseudomonas putida |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=944–9 |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |first2=AM |first3=IC |doi=10.1128/JB.116.2.944-949.1973 |pmc=285467}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.70.3.885 |pmid=4351810 |year=1973 |last1=Rheinwald |first1=JG |last2=Chakrabarty |last3=Gunsalus |title=A transmissible plasmid controlling camphor oxidation in Pseudomonas putida |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=885–9 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=AM |first3=IC |pmc=433381|bibcode=1973PNAS...70..885R |doi-access=free }}</ref> a new species of ''[[Pseudomonas]]'' [[bacteria]] ("the [[petroleum|oil]]-eating bacteria") in 1971 while working for the [[Research & Development]] Center at [[GE|General Electric Company]] in [[Schenectady]], New York.<ref name="times">{{cite magazine |title=Environment: Oil-Eating Bug |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917877,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421181016/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917877,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 April 2008 |date=22 September 1975 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=28 September 2009}}</ref>


At the time, four known species of oil-metabolizing bacteria were known to exist, but when introduced into an [[petroleum|oil]] spill, they competed with each other, limiting the amount of [[crude oil]] that they degraded. The [[genes]] necessary to degrade oil were carried on [[plasmids]], which could be transferred among species. By irradiating the transformed organism with [[UV light]] after plasmid transfer, Prof. Chakrabarty discovered a method for genetic cross-linking that fixed all four plasmid genes in place and produced a new, stable, bacterial species (now called ''[[Pseudomonas putida]]'') capable of consuming oil one or two orders of magnitude faster than the previous four strains of oil-eating microbes. The new microbe, which Chakrabarty called "multiplasmid hydrocarbon-degrading ''Pseudomonas''," could digest about two-thirds of the hydrocarbons that would be found in a typical oil spill.
At the time, four known species of oil-metabolizing bacteria were known to exist, but when introduced into an [[petroleum|oil]] spill, they competed with each other, limiting the amount of [[crude oil]] that they degraded. The [[genes]] necessary to degrade oil were carried on [[plasmids]], which could be transferred among species. By irradiating the transformed organism with [[UV light]] after plasmid transfer, Prof. Chakrabarty discovered a method for genetic cross-linking that fixed all four plasmid genes in place and produced a new, stable, bacterial species (now called ''[[Pseudomonas putida]]'') capable of consuming oil one or two orders of magnitude faster than the previous four strains of oil-eating microbes. The new microbe, which Chakrabarty called "multiplasmid hydrocarbon-degrading ''Pseudomonas''," could digest about two-thirds of the hydrocarbons that would be found in a typical oil spill.


The bacteria drew international attention when he applied for a [[patent]]—the first U.S. patent for a [[genetically modified organism]]. (U.S. utility patents had been granted to living organisms before, including two pure bacterial cultures, patented by Louis Pasteur. Chakrabarty's modified bacterium was granted a patent in the U.K. before the U.S. patent came through.) He was initially denied the patent by the Patent Office because the patent code was thought to preclude patents on living organisms. The [[United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals]] overturned the decision in Chakrabarty's favor, writing:
The bacteria drew international attention when he applied for a [[patent]]—the first U.S. patent for a [[genetically modified organism]]. (U.S. utility patents had been granted to living organisms before, including two pure bacterial cultures, patented by Louis Pasteur. Chakrabarty's modified bacterium was granted a patent in the U.K. before the U.S. patent came through.) He was initially denied the patent by the Patent Office because the patent code was thought to preclude patents on living organisms. The [[United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals]] overturned the decision in Chakrabarty's favor, writing:
{{bquote| ...the fact that micro-organisms are alive is without legal significance for purposes of patent law.}}
{{blockquote| ...the fact that micro-organisms are alive is without legal significance for purposes of patent law.}}


[[Sidney A. Diamond]], Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, then appealed to the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]. The Supreme Court case was argued on 17 March 1980 and decided on 16 June 1980. This patent was granted by the U.S. Supreme Court (''Diamond v. Chakrabarty''), in a 5-4 decision, when it determined:
[[Sidney A. Diamond]], Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, then appealed to the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]. The Supreme Court case was argued on 17 March 1980 and decided on 16 June 1980. This patent was granted by the U.S. Supreme Court (''Diamond v. Chakrabarty''), in a 5–4 decision, when it determined:
{{bquote|A live, human-made micro-organism is patentable subject matter under [Title 35 U.S.C.] 101. Respondent's micro-organism constitutes a "manufacture" or "composition of matter" within that statute.}}
{{blockquote|A live, human-made micro-organism is patentable subject matter under [Title 35 U.S.C.] 101. Respondent's micro-organism constitutes a "manufacture" or "composition of matter" within that statute.}}


Prof. Chakrabarty's landmark research has since paved the way for many patents on [[genetically modified]] [[micro-organisms]] and other life forms, and catapulted him into the international spotlight.<ref name="interview">{{cite news |title='Innovation gives you confidence and a respectable position across the globe' |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/%91Innovation-gives-you-confidence-and-a-respectable-position-across-the-globe%92/186211/ |date=11 December 2006 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=28 September 2009}}</ref>
Prof. Chakrabarty's landmark research has since paved the way for many patents on [[genetically modified]] [[micro-organisms]] and other life forms, and catapulted him into the international spotlight.<ref name="interview">{{cite news |title=Innovation gives you confidence and a respectable position across the globe |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/%91Innovation-gives-you-confidence-and-a-respectable-position-across-the-globe%92/186211/ |date=11 December 2006 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=28 September 2009}}</ref>


== Last work ==
== Last work ==
His lab worked on elucidating the role of bacterial [[copper proteins|cupredoxins]] and [[cytochromes]] in [[cancer]] regression and arresting [[cell cycle]] progression.<ref name="UIC">{{cite web |url=http://www.uic.edu/depts/mcmi/faculty/chakrabarty/index.htm |title=Ananda Chakrabarty |year=2006 |access-date=28 September 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091005062732/http://www.uic.edu/depts/mcmi/faculty/chakrabarty/index.htm| archive-date= 5 October 2009 | url-status= live}}{{Self-published inline|date=September 2009}}</ref> These proteins have been formerly known for their involvement in bacterial [[electron transport]]. He isolated a bacterial protein, [[azurin]], with potential [[chemotherapy|antineoplastic]] properties.<ref name="interview"/><ref name="other">{{cite news |first=Joe Vanden |last=Plas |date=9 September 2006 |title=Father of life patents downplays historic role |url=http://wtnnews.com/articles/3305/ |publisher=Wisconsin Technology Network 28 September 2009 |access-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208094857/http://wtnnews.com/articles/3305/ |archive-date=8 February 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He expanded his lab's work to include multiple microbiological species, including ''[[Neisseria]]'', ''[[Plasmodia]]'', and ''[[Microbial corrosion|Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans]]''.<ref name="UIC"/> In 2001, Prof. Chakrabarty founded a company, CDG Therapeutics,<ref name="interview"/><ref name="other"/> ([[incorporated in Delaware]]) which holds proprietary information related to five patents generated by his work at the University of Illinois at Chicago. The [[University of Illinois at Chicago|University of Illinois]] owns the rights to the patents, but has issued exclusive licences to CDG Therapeutics.<ref name="interview"/>
His lab worked on elucidating the role of bacterial [[copper proteins|cupredoxins]] and [[cytochromes]] in [[cancer]] regression and arresting [[cell cycle]] progression.<ref name="UIC">{{cite web |url=http://www.uic.edu/depts/mcmi/faculty/chakrabarty/index.htm |title=Ananda Chakrabarty |year=2006 |access-date=28 September 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091005062732/http://www.uic.edu/depts/mcmi/faculty/chakrabarty/index.htm| archive-date= 5 October 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=September 2009}} These proteins have been formerly known for their involvement in bacterial [[electron transport]]. He isolated a bacterial protein, [[azurin]], with potential [[chemotherapy|antineoplastic]] properties.<ref name="interview"/><ref name="other">{{cite news |first=Joe Vanden |last=Plas |date=9 September 2006 |title=Father of life patents downplays historic role |url=http://wtnnews.com/articles/3305/ |publisher=Wisconsin Technology Network 28 September 2009 |access-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208094857/http://wtnnews.com/articles/3305/ |archive-date=8 February 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He expanded his lab's work to include multiple microbiological species, including ''[[Neisseria]]'', ''[[Plasmodia]]'', and ''[[Microbial corrosion|Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans]]''.<ref name="UIC"/> In 2001, Prof. Chakrabarty founded a company, CDG Therapeutics,<ref name="interview"/><ref name="other"/> ([[incorporated in Delaware]]) which holds proprietary information related to five patents generated by his work at the University of Illinois at Chicago. The [[University of Illinois at Chicago|University of Illinois]] owns the rights to the patents, but has issued exclusive licences to CDG Therapeutics.<ref name="interview"/>


In 2008, Prof. Chakrabarty co-founded a second biopharmaceutical discovery company, Amrita Therapeutics Ltd., registered in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, to develop therapies, vaccines, and diagnostics effective against cancers and/or other major public health threats derived from bacterial products found in the human body.<ref>[http://www.amritatherapeutics.com Amritatherapeutics.com]</ref> Amrita Therapeutics Ltd. received initial funding in late 2008 from Gujarat Venture Finance Limited,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dst.gujarat.gov.in/biotechnology.shtm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803000952/https://www.dst.gujarat.gov.in/biotechnology.shtm |archive-date=3 August 2010 |title=Gujarat State Biotechnology Mission |url-status=dead }}</ref> and later received a grant for a two-year research program in 2010 from the Indian Department of Biotechnology under the Biotechnology Industry Promotion Program (BIPP).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birapdbt.nic.in/programmes.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803182314/http://www.birapdbt.nic.in/programmes.php |archive-date=3 August 2010|title=Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme (BIPP) }}</ref>
In 2008, Prof. Chakrabarty co-founded a second biopharmaceutical discovery company, Amrita Therapeutics Ltd., registered in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, to develop therapies, vaccines, and diagnostics effective against cancers and/or other major public health threats derived from bacterial products found in the human body.<ref>[http://www.amritatherapeutics.com Amritatherapeutics.com]</ref> Amrita Therapeutics Ltd. received initial funding in late 2008 from Gujarat Venture Finance Limited,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dst.gujarat.gov.in/biotechnology.shtm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803000952/https://www.dst.gujarat.gov.in/biotechnology.shtm |archive-date=3 August 2010 |title=Gujarat State Biotechnology Mission |url-status=dead }}</ref> and later received a grant for a two-year research program in 2010 from the Indian Department of Biotechnology under the Biotechnology Industry Promotion Program (BIPP).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.birapdbt.nic.in/programmes.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803182314/http://www.birapdbt.nic.in/programmes.php |archive-date=3 August 2010|title=Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme (BIPP) }}</ref>


== Academic career ==
== Academic career ==
Chakrabarty was a Distinguished University Professor in the Department of [[Microbiology]] and [[Immunology]] in the [[University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine]]. Apart from being an eminent scientist, Ananda Chakrabarty has been an advisor to judges, governments, and the [[UN]].<ref name="other"/> As one of the founding members of a [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] committee that proposed the establishment of the [[International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology]], he has been a member of its Council of Scientific Advisors ever since.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} He has served the U.S. government as a member of [[NIH]] Study Sections, a member of the Board on Biology of the [[National Academy of Science]],
Chakrabarty was a Distinguished University Professor in the Department of [[Microbiology]] and [[Immunology]] in the [[University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine]]. Ananda Chakrabarty has been an advisor to judges, governments, and the [[UN]].<ref name="other"/> As one of the founding members of a [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] committee that proposed the establishment of the [[International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology]], he has been a member of its Council of Scientific Advisors ever since.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} He has served the U.S. government as a member of [[NIH]] Study Sections, a member of the Board on Biology of the [[National Academy of Sciences]],
and the Committee on Biotechnology of the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]].
and the Committee on Biotechnology of the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]].


He has also served the [[Stockholm Environment Institute]] of Sweden. He has been on the scientific advisory boards of many academic institutions such as the [[Michigan Biotechnology Institute]], the [[Montana State University - Bozeman|Montana State University]] [[Center for Biofilm Engineering]], the Center for Microbial Ecology at the [[Michigan State University]], and the [[Canadian Bacterial Diseases Network]] based in [[Calgary|Calgary, Alberta]], Canada. Dr. Chakrabarty has also served as a member of the [[NATO]] Industrial Advisory Group based in [[Brussels]], Belgium. He was a member of the board of directors of Einstein Institute for Science, Health and the Courts, where he participated in judicial education.
He has also served the [[Stockholm Environment Institute]] of Sweden. He has been on the scientific advisory boards of many academic institutions such as the [[Michigan Biotechnology Institute]], the [[Montana State University – Bozeman|Montana State University]] [[Center for Biofilm Engineering]], the Center for Microbial Ecology at the [[Michigan State University]], and the [[Canadian Bacterial Diseases Network]] based in [[Calgary|Calgary, Alberta]], Canada. Dr. Chakrabarty has also served as a member of the [[NATO]] Industrial Advisory Group based in [[Brussels]], Belgium. He was a member of the board of directors of Einstein Institute for Science, Health and the Courts, where he participated in judicial education.


For his work in [[genetic engineering]] [[technology]], he was awarded the civilian [[Padma Shri]] by the [[government of India]] in 2007.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |date=2015 |access-date=July 21, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6U68ulwpb?url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>
For his work in [[genetic engineering]] [[technology]], he was awarded the civilian [[Padma Shri]] by the [[government of India]] in 2007.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |date=2015 |access-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2015 }}</ref>


== References ==
== References ==
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{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Science & Engineering}}
{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Science & Engineering}}

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Latest revision as of 08:16, 25 April 2024

Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty
Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty at Science City, Kolkata on 8 Nov. 2009
Born(1938-04-04)4 April 1938
Sainthia, Bengal Presidency, British India
Died10 July 2020(2020-07-10) (aged 82)[1]
Chicago, Illinois, United States[2]
NationalityIndian
Alma materUniversity of Calcutta
Known forGenetically engineering a Pseudomonas bacterium
Scientific career
FieldsMicrobiology

Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty (Bengali: আনন্দমোহন চক্রবর্তী Ānandamōhan Cakrabartī), PhD (4 April 1938 – 10 Jul 2020) was an Indian American microbiologist, scientist, and researcher, most notable for his work in directed evolution and his role in developing a genetically engineered organism using plasmid transfer while working at GE, the patent for which[3] led to landmark Supreme Court case, Diamond v. Chakrabarty.

Early life[edit]

Ananda (generally called "Al" by scientific colleagues) Chakrabarty was born in Sainthia on 4 April 1938. He attended Sainthia High School, Ramakrishna Mission Vidyamandira and St. Xavier's College, Calcutta—in that order—during the course of his undergraduate education. Prof. Chakrabarty received his PhD. from the University of Calcutta in Kolkata, West Bengal in 1965.

Scientific work[edit]

Prof. Chakrabarty genetically engineered[4][5][6][7][8][9] a new species of Pseudomonas bacteria ("the oil-eating bacteria") in 1971 while working for the Research & Development Center at General Electric Company in Schenectady, New York.[10]

At the time, four known species of oil-metabolizing bacteria were known to exist, but when introduced into an oil spill, they competed with each other, limiting the amount of crude oil that they degraded. The genes necessary to degrade oil were carried on plasmids, which could be transferred among species. By irradiating the transformed organism with UV light after plasmid transfer, Prof. Chakrabarty discovered a method for genetic cross-linking that fixed all four plasmid genes in place and produced a new, stable, bacterial species (now called Pseudomonas putida) capable of consuming oil one or two orders of magnitude faster than the previous four strains of oil-eating microbes. The new microbe, which Chakrabarty called "multiplasmid hydrocarbon-degrading Pseudomonas," could digest about two-thirds of the hydrocarbons that would be found in a typical oil spill.

The bacteria drew international attention when he applied for a patent—the first U.S. patent for a genetically modified organism. (U.S. utility patents had been granted to living organisms before, including two pure bacterial cultures, patented by Louis Pasteur. Chakrabarty's modified bacterium was granted a patent in the U.K. before the U.S. patent came through.) He was initially denied the patent by the Patent Office because the patent code was thought to preclude patents on living organisms. The United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals overturned the decision in Chakrabarty's favor, writing:

...the fact that micro-organisms are alive is without legal significance for purposes of patent law.

Sidney A. Diamond, Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks, then appealed to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court case was argued on 17 March 1980 and decided on 16 June 1980. This patent was granted by the U.S. Supreme Court (Diamond v. Chakrabarty), in a 5–4 decision, when it determined:

A live, human-made micro-organism is patentable subject matter under [Title 35 U.S.C.] 101. Respondent's micro-organism constitutes a "manufacture" or "composition of matter" within that statute.

Prof. Chakrabarty's landmark research has since paved the way for many patents on genetically modified micro-organisms and other life forms, and catapulted him into the international spotlight.[11]

Last work[edit]

His lab worked on elucidating the role of bacterial cupredoxins and cytochromes in cancer regression and arresting cell cycle progression.[12][self-published source?] These proteins have been formerly known for their involvement in bacterial electron transport. He isolated a bacterial protein, azurin, with potential antineoplastic properties.[11][13] He expanded his lab's work to include multiple microbiological species, including Neisseria, Plasmodia, and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans.[12] In 2001, Prof. Chakrabarty founded a company, CDG Therapeutics,[11][13] (incorporated in Delaware) which holds proprietary information related to five patents generated by his work at the University of Illinois at Chicago. The University of Illinois owns the rights to the patents, but has issued exclusive licences to CDG Therapeutics.[11]

In 2008, Prof. Chakrabarty co-founded a second biopharmaceutical discovery company, Amrita Therapeutics Ltd., registered in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, to develop therapies, vaccines, and diagnostics effective against cancers and/or other major public health threats derived from bacterial products found in the human body.[14] Amrita Therapeutics Ltd. received initial funding in late 2008 from Gujarat Venture Finance Limited,[15] and later received a grant for a two-year research program in 2010 from the Indian Department of Biotechnology under the Biotechnology Industry Promotion Program (BIPP).[16]

Academic career[edit]

Chakrabarty was a Distinguished University Professor in the Department of Microbiology and Immunology in the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine. Ananda Chakrabarty has been an advisor to judges, governments, and the UN.[13] As one of the founding members of a United Nations Industrial Development Organization committee that proposed the establishment of the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, he has been a member of its Council of Scientific Advisors ever since.[citation needed] He has served the U.S. government as a member of NIH Study Sections, a member of the Board on Biology of the National Academy of Sciences, and the Committee on Biotechnology of the National Research Council.

He has also served the Stockholm Environment Institute of Sweden. He has been on the scientific advisory boards of many academic institutions such as the Michigan Biotechnology Institute, the Montana State University Center for Biofilm Engineering, the Center for Microbial Ecology at the Michigan State University, and the Canadian Bacterial Diseases Network based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Dr. Chakrabarty has also served as a member of the NATO Industrial Advisory Group based in Brussels, Belgium. He was a member of the board of directors of Einstein Institute for Science, Health and the Courts, where he participated in judicial education.

For his work in genetic engineering technology, he was awarded the civilian Padma Shri by the government of India in 2007.[17]

References[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty (biologist).
  1. ^ Davey, Neil; Rader, Randall Ray; Chakravarti, Debabrata (January 2021). "Ananda Mohan 'Al' Chakrabarty 1938–2020". Nature Biotechnology. 39 (1): 18–19. doi:10.1038/s41587-020-00785-4. S2CID 229300870.
  2. ^ "Remembering Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty". The School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. 2 September 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  3. ^ US Patent 4,259,444
  4. ^ Chakrabarty, AM; Mylroie, JR; Friello, DA; Vacca, JG (1975). "Transformation of Pseudomonas putida and Escherichia coli with plasmid-linked drug-resistance factor DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 72 (9): 3647–51. Bibcode:1975PNAS...72.3647C. doi:10.1073/pnas.72.9.3647. PMC 433053. PMID 1103151.
  5. ^ Chakrabarty, AM; Friello, DA (1974). "Dissociation and interaction of individual components of a degradative plasmid aggregate in Pseudomonas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (9): 3410–4. Bibcode:1974PNAS...71.3410C. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.9.3410. PMC 433782. PMID 4530312.
  6. ^ Chakrabarty, AM (1974). "Dissociation of a degradative plasmid aggregate in Pseudomonas". Journal of Bacteriology. 118 (3): 815–20. doi:10.1128/JB.118.3.815-820.1974. PMC 246827. PMID 4829926.
  7. ^ Chakrabarty, AM (1974). "Transcriptional Control of the Expression of a Degradative Plasmid in Pseudomonas". Control of Transcription. Vol. 3. pp. 157–65. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-4529-9_13. ISBN 978-1-4613-4531-2. PMID 4823075. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  8. ^ Shaham, M; Chakrabarty, AM; Gunsalus, IC (1973). "Camphor plasmid-mediated chromosomal transfer in Pseudomonas putida". Journal of Bacteriology. 116 (2): 944–9. doi:10.1128/JB.116.2.944-949.1973. PMC 285467. PMID 4745436.
  9. ^ Rheinwald, JG; Chakrabarty, AM; Gunsalus, IC (1973). "A transmissible plasmid controlling camphor oxidation in Pseudomonas putida". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (3): 885–9. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70..885R. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.3.885. PMC 433381. PMID 4351810.
  10. ^ "Environment: Oil-Eating Bug". Time. 22 September 1975. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2009.
  11. ^ a b c d "Innovation gives you confidence and a respectable position across the globe". The Financial Express. 11 December 2006. Retrieved 28 September 2009.
  12. ^ a b "Ananda Chakrabarty". 2006. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 28 September 2009.
  13. ^ a b c Plas, Joe Vanden (9 September 2006). "Father of life patents downplays historic role". Wisconsin Technology Network 28 September 2009. Archived from the original on 8 February 2015. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
  14. ^ Amritatherapeutics.com
  15. ^ "Gujarat State Biotechnology Mission". Archived from the original on 3 August 2010.
  16. ^ "Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme (BIPP)". Archived from the original on 3 August 2010.
  17. ^ "Padma Awards" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
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