Climate change

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Nathan Hall (talk | contribs) at 02:17, 20 March 2007 (→‎Scientific). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Global mean surface temperatures 1850 to 2006
Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980

Global warming is the observed increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans in recent decades and its projected continuation.

Global average air temperature near Earth's surface rose 0.74 ± 0.18 °Celsius (1.3 ± 0.32 °Fahrenheit) in the last century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations,"[1] which leads to warming of the surface and lower atmosphere by increasing the greenhouse effect. Other phenomena such as solar variation and volcanoes have had smaller but non-negligible effects on global mean temperature since 1950.[2] While this conclusion has been endorsed by numerous scientific societies and academies of science, a few scientists disagree about the primary causes of the observed warming.

Models referenced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict that global temperatures are likely to increase by 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) between 1990 and 2100.[1] The range of values reflects the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as uncertainties regarding climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a millennium even if no further greenhouse gases are released after this date. This reflects the long average atmospheric lifetime of carbon dioxide (CO2).

An increase in global temperatures can in turn cause other changes, including a rising sea level and changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation. There may also be increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, though it is difficult to connect specific events to global warming. Other consequences include changes in agricultural yields, glacier retreat, reduced summer streamflows, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the exact degree of climate change expected in the future, and especially how changes will vary from region to region across the globe. A hotly contested political and public debate also has yet to be resolved, regarding whether anything should be done, and what could be cost-effectively done to reduce or reverse future warming, or to deal with the expected consequences. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at combating greenhouse gas emissions. (See: List of Kyoto Protocol signatories.)

Terminology

The term global warming is a specific example of the broader term climate change, which can also refer to global cooling. In principle, global warming is neutral as to the period or causes, but in both common and scientific usage the term generally refers to recent warming and implies a human influence.[3] The UNFCCC uses the term "climate change" for human-caused change, and "climate variability" for other changes.[4] The term "anthropogenic climate change" is sometimes used when focusing on human-induced changes.

The term itself is non-controversial, as temperature increases (and declines) have been noted throughout history. There is a controversy over whether present trends are anthropogenic. For a discussion of the controversy, see global warming controversy.

History of warming

Main article: Temperature record
Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions, each smoothed on a decadal scale. The unsmoothed, annual value for 2004 is also plotted for reference.

Global temperatures on both land and sea have increased by 0.75 °C (1.4 °F) relative to the period 1860–1900, according to the instrumental temperature record. This measured temperature increase does not appear to be significantly affected by the urban heat island.[5][6] Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 °C/decade against 0.13 °C/decade).[7] Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.12 and 0.22 °C (0.22 and 0.4 °F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements. Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850, with possibly regional fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period or the Little Ice Age.

Based on estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2005 was the warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became available in the late 1800s, exceeding the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree. Estimates prepared by the World Meteorological Organization and the UK Climatic Research Unit concluded that 2005 was the second warmest year, behind 1998.[8][9]

Anthropogenic emissions of other pollutants—notably sulfate aerosols—can exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. This partially accounts for the cooling seen in the temperature record in the middle of the twentieth century,[10] though the cooling may also be due in part to natural variability.

Causes

Main articles: Attribution of recent climate change and scientific opinion on climate change
File:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr-2.png
Carbon dioxide during the last 400,000 years and the rapid rise since the Industrial Revolution; changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, known as Milankovitch cycles, are believed to be the pacemaker of the 100,000 year ice age cycle.

The climate system varies through natural, internal processes and in response to variations in external "forcing" factors including solar activity, volcanic emissions, variations in the earth's orbit (orbital forcing) and greenhouse gases. The detailed causes of the recent warming remain an active field of research, but the scientific consensus identifies increased levels of greenhouse gases due to human activity as the main influence.[11] This attribution is clearest for the most recent 50 years, for which the most detailed data are available.

Adding carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4) to Earth's atmosphere, with no other changes, will make the planet's surface warmer. Greenhouse gases create a natural greenhouse effect without which temperatures on Earth would be an estimated 30 °C (54 °F) lower, so that Earth would be uninhabitable. It is therefore not correct to say that there is a debate between those who "believe in" and "oppose" the greenhouse effect as such. Rather, the debate concerns the net effect of the addition of greenhouse gases when allowing for positive or negative feedback.

Contrasting with this consensus view, other hypotheses have been proposed to explain all or most of the observed increase in global temperatures, including: the warming is within the range of natural variation; the warming is a consequence of coming out of a prior cool period, namely the Little Ice Age; and the warming is primarily a result of variances in solar radiation.

One example of an important feedback process is ice-albedo feedback.[12] The increased CO2 in the atmosphere warms the Earth's surface and leads to melting of ice near the poles. As the ice melts, land or open water takes its place. Both land and open water are on average less reflective than ice, and thus absorb more solar radiation. This causes more warming, which in turn causes more melting, and this cycle continues.

Due to the thermal inertia of the Earth's oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects, the Earth's current climate is not in equilibrium with the forcing imposed by increased greenhouse gases. Climate commitment studies indicate that, even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at present day levels, a further warming of about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) would still occur.[13]

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

Main article: Greenhouse effect
Recent increases in atmospheric CO2. The monthly CO2 measurements display small seasonal oscillations in an overall yearly uptrend; each year's maximum is reached during the northern hemisphere's late spring, and declines during the northern hemisphere growing season as plants remove some CO2 from the atmosphere.

The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. It is the process by which emission of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases warms a planet's surface. On Earth, the major natural greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36-70% of the greenhouse effect (not including clouds); carbon dioxide, which causes 9-26%; methane, which causes 4-9%, and ozone, which causes 3-7%.

The atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 31% and 149% respectively above pre-industrial levels since 1750. This is considerably higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores. From less direct geological evidence it is believed that CO2 values this high were last attained 24 million years ago.[14] About three-quarters of the anthropogenic (man-made) emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere during the past 20 years are due to fossil fuel burning. The rest of the anthropogenic emissions are predominantly due to land-use change, especially deforestation.[15]

Future CO2 levels are expected to rise due to ongoing burning of fossil fuels. The rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic, sociological, technological, natural developments, but may be ultimately limited by the availability of fossil fuels. The IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios gives a wide range of future CO2 scenarios,[16] ranging from 541 to 970 parts per million by the year 2100. Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach this level and continue emissions past 2100, if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively used.[citation needed]

Carbon dioxide sink ecosystems (forests and oceans)[17] are being degraded by pollutants.[18] Degradation of major carbon sinks results in higher atmospheric CO2 levels.

Anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases broken down by sector for the year 2000.

Positive feedback effects such as the expected release of methane from the melting of permafrost peat bogs in Siberia (possibly up to 70,000 million tonnes) may lead to significant additional sources of greenhouse gas emissions[19] not included in IPCC's climate models.[citation needed]

The measure of the temperature response to increased greenhouse gas concentrations and other anthropogenic and natural climate forcings is climate sensitivity. It is found by observational and model studies.[20] This sensitivity is usually expressed in terms of the temperature response expected from a doubling of CO2 in the atmosphere. The current literature estimates sensitivity in the range of 1.5 to 4.5 °C (2.7 to 8.1 °F).

Solar variation

Main article: Solar variation

Variations in solar output, possibly amplified by cloud feedbacks, have been suggested as a possible cause of recent warming. The debate is complicated by the lack of reliable measures of solar output, even over the 30 years of satellite record; further back requires proxies such as sunspot count or cosmogenic isotopes, which are believed to (partly) correlate to solar output. In general, the IPCC describes the level of scientific understanding of the contribution of variations in solar irradiance to historical climate changes as "low."[1]

Solar activity events recorded in radiocarbon.

The present level of solar activity is high in the context of the last 8,000 years.[21] However, most records say that there has been no increase over the last 30 years.[citation needed] Since 1750, solar variation is estimated to be less than one-tenth of the forcing from greenhouse gases.[1]

Estimates of recent solar forcing vary. Modeling studies indicate that volcanic and solar forcings may account for half of the temperature variations prior to 1950, but the net effect of such natural forcings has been cooling since then.[22] Foukal et al. (2006) determined both that the variations in solar output were too small to have contributed appreciably to global warming since the mid-1970s and that there was no evidence of a net increase in brightness during this period.[23] Additionally, in 2005, researchers at Duke University have found that 10–30% of the warming over the last two decades may be due to increased solar output.[24] Some scientists believe that the effect of solar forcing is being underestimated and propose that solar forcing accounts for 16% or 36% of recent greenhouse warming.[25]

It appears likely that solar variations are too small to directly explain a significant fraction of the observed warming. Various researchers, notably Nigel Marsh and Henrik Svensmark, have proposed that feedback from clouds or other processes enhance the direct effect of solar variation.[26] A warming of the stratosphere, which has not been observed, would be expected if there were a significant increase in solar activity.[27]

Attributed and expected effects

Main article: Effects of global warming
Global glacial mass balance in the last 50 years, reported to the WGMS and the NSIDC. The increased downward trend in the late 1980s is symptomatic of the increased rate and number of retreating glaciers.

Some effects on both the natural environment and human life are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. Glacier retreat, ice shelf disruption such as the Larsen Ice Shelf, sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, increased intensity and frequency of hurricanes and extreme weather events, are being attributed at least in part to global warming. While changes are expected for overall patterns, intensity, and frequencies, it is difficult or impossible to attribute specific events (such as Hurricane Katrina) to global warming.

Some anticipated effects include sea level rise of 110 to 770 mm (0.36 to 2.5 feet) by 2100,[28] repercussions to agriculture, possible slowing of the thermohaline circulation, reductions in the ozone layer, increased intensity and frequency of hurricanes and extreme weather events, lowering of ocean pH, and the spread of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. One study predicts 18 to 35 percent of a sample of 1,103 animal and plant species would be extinct by 2050, based on future climate projections.[29]

Some scientists, including those supporting the mainstream scientific opinion on global warming, criticize the "catastrophism and the 'Hollywoodisation'" of some of the expected effects. They argue the sensationalized claims cannot be justified by the science.[30]

The extent and probability of these consequences has caused controversy, as is a matter of considerable uncertainty. A summary of probable effects and recent understanding can be found in the report of the IPCC Working Group II;[31] the newer AR4 summary reports, "There is observational evidence for an increase of intense tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic since about 1970, correlated with increases of tropical sea surface temperatures. There are also suggestions of increased intense tropical cyclone activity in some other regions where concerns over data quality are greater. Multi-decadal variability and the quality of the tropical cyclone records prior to routine satellite observations in about 1970 complicate the detection of long-term trends in tropical cyclone activity. There is no clear trend in the annual numbers of tropical cyclones."[1]

Mitigation

Main articles: Mitigation of global warming and adaptation to global warming

The broad agreement among climate scientists that global temperatures will continue to increase has led nations, states, corporations and individuals to implement actions to try to curtail global warming. Some of the strategies that have been proposed for mitigation of global warming include development of new technologies; carbon offsets; renewable energy such as wind power, and solar power; nuclear power; electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles; non-fossil fuel cells; energy conservation; carbon taxes; improving natural carbon dioxide sinks; deliberate production of sulfate aerosols, which produce a cooling effect on the Earth; population control; carbon capture and storage; and nanotechnology. Many environmental groups encourage individual action against global warming, often aimed at the consumer, and there has been business action on climate change.

Kyoto Protocol

Main article: Kyoto Protocol

The world's primary international agreement on combating global warming is the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of CO2 and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases. Developing countries are exempt from meeting emission standards in Kyoto. This includes China and India, the second and third largest emitters of CO2, behind the United States. The International Energy Agency predicts China will exceed total U.S. emissions before 2010.[32]

Climate models

Main article: Global climate model
Calculations of global warming from a range of climate models under the SRES A2 emissions scenario, which assumes no action is taken to reduce emissions.
File:Global Warming Predictions Map 2.jpg
The geographic distribution of surface warming during the 21st century calculated by the HadCM3 climate model if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions. In this figure, the globally averaged warming corresponds to 3.0 °C (5.4 °F)

Scientists have studied global warming with computer models of the climate. These models predict that the net effect of adding greenhouse gases will be a warmer climate in the future. However, even when the same assumptions of fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emission are used, the amount of predicted warming varies between models and there still remains a considerable range of climate sensitivity.

Including model and future greenhouse gas uncertainty, the IPCC anticipates a warming of 1.1 °C to 6.4 °C (2.0 °F to 11.5 °F) between 1990 and 2100. They have also been used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models predict from various natural and human derived forcing factors.

Climate models can produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century.[33] These models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects; however, they suggest that the warming since 1975 is dominated by man-made greenhouse gas emissions.

Most global climate models, when run to predict future climate, are forced by imposed greenhouse gas scenarios, generally one from the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). Less commonly, models may be run by adding a simulation of the carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive feedback, though this response is uncertain (under the A2 SRES scenario, responses vary between an extra 20 and 200 ppm of CO2). Some observational studies also show a positive feedback.[34]

The representation of clouds is one of the main sources of uncertainty in present-generation models, though progress is being made on this problem.[35] There is also an ongoing discussion as to whether climate models are neglecting important indirect and feedback effects of solar variability.

Other related issues

Ocean acidification

Main article: Ocean acidification

Increased atmospheric CO2 increases the amount of CO2 dissolved in the oceans.[36] Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the ocean reacts with water to form carbonic acid resulting in ocean acidification. Since biosystems are adapted to a narrow range of pH, this is a serious concern directly driven by increased atmospheric CO2 and not global warming.

Relationship to ozone depletion

Main article: Ozone depletion

Although they are often interlinked in the mass media, the connection between global warming and ozone depletion is not strong. There are five areas of linkage:

  • The same CO2 radiative forcing that produces near-surface global warming is expected (perhaps somewhat surprisingly) to cool the stratosphere. This, in turn, would lead to a relative increase in ozone (O3) depletion and the frequency of ozone holes.
Radiative forcing from various greenhouse gases and other sources
  • Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system. There are two opposed effects: Reduced ozone allows more solar radiation to penetrate, thus warming the troposphere instead of the stratosphere; the resulting colder stratosphere emits less long-wave radiation down to the troposphere, thus having a cooling effect. Overall, the cooling dominates; the IPCC concludes that "observed stratospheric O3 losses over the past two decades have caused a negative forcing of the surface-troposphere system"[37] of about −0.15 ± 0.10 watts per square meter (W/m2).[38]
  • One of the strongest predictions of the greenhouse effect theory is that the stratosphere will cool. Although this cooling has been observed, it is not trivial to separate the effects of changes in the concentration of greenhouse gases and ozone depletion since both will lead to cooling. However, this can be done by numerical stratospheric modeling. Results from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory show that above 20 km (12.4 miles), the greenhouse gases dominate the cooling.[39]
  • Ozone depleting chemicals are also greenhouse gases, representing 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m2, or about 14% of the total radiative forcing from well-mixed greenhouse gases.[38]

Relationship to global dimming

Main article: Global dimming

Scientists have stated with 66-90% confidence that the effects of volcanic and human-caused aerosols have offset some of global warming, and that greenhouse gases would have resulted in more warming than observed if not for this effect.[1]

Pre-human global warming

Further information: Paleoclimatology and temperature record
Curves of reconstructed temperature at two locations in Antarctica and a global record of variations in glacial ice volume. Today's date is on the left side of the graph

The earth has experienced natural global warming and cooling many times in the past. The recent Antarctic EPICA ice core spans 800,000 years, including eight glacial cycles with interglacial warming periods much hotter than current temperatures. The chart also shows the time of the last glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago.

It is thought by some geologists[who?] that a rapid buildup of greenhouse gases caused the Earth to experience global warming in the early Jurassic period, with average temperatures rising by 5 °C (9.0 °F). Research by the Open University indicates that this caused the rate of rock weathering to increase by 400%. As such weathering locks away carbon in calcite and dolomite, CO2 levels dropped back to normal over roughly the next 150,000 years.[40][41]

Sudden releases of methane from clathrate compounds (the clathrate gun hypothesis) have been hypothesized as a cause for other past global warming events, including the Permian-Triassic extinction event and the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. However, warming at the end of the last glacial period is thought not to be due to methane release.[42] Instead, natural variations in the Earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles) are believed to have triggered the retreat of ice sheets by changing the amount of solar radiation received at high latitude and led to deglaciation.

Using paleoclimate data for the last 500 million years, Veizer et al. (2000, Nature 408, pp. 698–701) concluded that long-term temperature variations are only weakly related to CO2 variations. Most paleoclimatologists believe this is because other factors, such as continental drift and mountain building have larger effects in determining very long-term climate. Shaviv and Veizer (2003) proposed that the largest long-term influence on temperature are variations in the flux of cosmic rays received by the Earth as the Solar System moves around the galaxy.[43] They argued that over geologic time-scales a change in CO2 concentrations comparable to doubling pre-industrial levels results in about 0.75 °C (1.35 °F) warming, less than the 1.5–4.5 °C (2.7–8.1 °F) reported by climate models.[44] Shaviv and Veizer (2004) acknowledge that this conclusion may only be valid on multi-million year time scales when glacial and geological feedback have had a chance to establish themselves. Rahmstorf et al. argue that Shaviv and Veizer arbitrarily tuned their data, and that their conclusions are unreliable.[45]

See also: Snowball Earth

Pre-industrial global warming

Paleoclimatologist William Ruddiman has argued that human influence on the global climate began around 8,000 years ago with the start of forest clearing to provide land for agriculture and 5,000 years ago with the start of Asian rice irrigation.[46] He contends that forest clearing explains the rise in CO2 levels in the current interglacial that started 8,000 years ago, contrasting with the decline in CO2 levels seen in the previous three interglacials. He further contends that the spread of rice irrigation explains the breakdown in the last 5,000 years of the correlation between the Northern Hemisphere solar radiation and global methane levels, which had been maintained over at least the last eleven 22,000-year cycles. Ruddiman argues that without these effects, the Earth would be nearly 2 °C (3.6 °F) cooler and "well on the way" to a new ice age. Ruddiman's interpretation of the historical record, with respect to the methane data, has been disputed.[47]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis - Summary for Policymakers" (PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  2. ^ Fourth Assessment Report Summary for Policymakers, figure SPM-2
  3. ^ "Climate Change: Basic Information". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2007-02-09.
  4. ^ "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Article I". United Nations. Retrieved 2007-01-15.
  5. ^ Peterson, Thomas (2003-09-15). "Assessment of urban versus rural in situ surface temperatures in the contiguous United States: No difference found" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 16 (18). American Meteorological Society: 2941–2959. ISSN 0894-8755. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  6. ^ Parker, David E. (2004-11-18). "Large-scale warming is not urban" (PDF). Nature. 432: 290–291. doi:10.1038/432290a. Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  7. ^ Smith, Thomas M. (2005-05-15). "A Global Merged Land–Air–Sea Surface Temperature Reconstruction Based on Historical Observations (1880–1997)" (PDF). Journal of climate. 18 (12). American Meteorological Society: 2021–2036. ISSN 0894-8755. Retrieved 2007-03-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ "Goddard Institute for Space Studies, GISS Surface Temperature Analysis". NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. 2006-01-12. Retrieved 2007-01-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ "Real Climate, 2005 temperatures". RealClimate. 2007-12-15. Retrieved 2007-01-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis, Chapter 12
  11. ^ IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Summary for Policymakers, p. 8
  12. ^ Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis, 7.5.2 Sea Ice, 2001. Retrieved February 11, 2007.
  13. ^ Gerald A. Meehl, et.al., Science Magazine, How Much More Global Warming and Sea Level Rise?, 18 March 2005. Retrieved February 11, 2007.
  14. ^ Pearson, PN (2000). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years". Nature. 406 (6797): 695. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ "Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis, Part 6". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2001. Retrieved 2007-01-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  16. ^ Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis, 3.7.3.3 SRES scenarios and their implications for future CO2 concentration
  17. ^ OceanOutfall Community Website, Information
  18. ^ OceanOutfall Community Website, Los Angeles Times: Ocean Report
  19. ^ Sample, Ian (2005-08-11). "Warming Hits 'Tipping Point'". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-01-18. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  20. ^ Gregory, J. M. (2002-11-15). "An Observationally Based Estimate of the Climate Sensitivity" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 15 (22): 3117–21. Retrieved 2007-01-18. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Solanki, Sami K. (2004-10-23). "Unusual activity of the Sun during recent decades compared to the previous 11,000 years" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7012): 1084–1087. doi:0.1038/nature02995. Retrieved 2007-03-15. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis, Chapter 12: Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes
  23. ^ TerraDaily.com, Changes In Solar Brightness Too Weak To Explain Global Warming, Sep 13, 2006. Retrieved February 11, 2007
  24. ^ Duke University, Sun's Direct Role in Global Warming May Be Underestimated, Duke Physicists Report, September 30, 2005. Retrieved February 11, 2007.
  25. ^ Stott, et al., Journal of Climate, Vol. 16, Do Models Underestimate the Solar Contribution to Recent Climate Change?, 15 December 2003. Retrieved February 11, 2007.
  26. ^ Nigel Marsh and Henrik Svensmark, Space Science Reviews 00: 1–16, 2000. Cosmic Rays, Clouds, and Climate.. Retrieved February 11, 2007.
  27. ^ Haigh, Joanna D. (2003-01-15). "The effects of solar variability on the Earth's climate". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 361 (1802): 91–111. doi:10.1098/rsta.2002.1111. Retrieved 2007-03-15.
  28. ^ "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis". Retrieved 2005-12-19.
  29. ^ Thomas, Chris D. (2004-01-08). "Extinction risk from climate change" (PDF). Nature. 427: 145–138. doi:10.1038/nature02121. Retrieved 2007-03-18. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Ghosh, Pallab (2007-03-17). "Caution urged on climate "risks"". BBC. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
  31. ^ "Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability". Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  32. ^ "World Energy Outlook 2006" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
  33. ^ "Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Work Group I. 2001. pp. Based upon Chapter 12, Figure 12.7. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
  34. ^ Torn, Margaret (2006-05-26). "Missing feedbacks, asymmetric uncertainties, and the underestimation of future warming". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (10). L10703. Retrieved 2007-03-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ "Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Work Group I. 2001. pp. Chapter 7.2.2. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
  36. ^ "The Ocean and the Carbon Cycle". NASA Oceanography (science@nasa). 2005-06-21. Retrieved 2007-03-04. {{cite web}}: External link in |work= (help)
  37. ^ "Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Work Group I. 2001. pp. Chapter 6.4. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
  38. ^ a b "IPCC/TEAP Special Report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons (summary for policy makers)" (PDF). International Panel on Climate Change and Technology and Economic Assessment Panel. 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-04. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  39. ^ "The Relative Roles of Ozone and Other Greenhouse Gases in Climate Change in the Stratosphere". Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. 2007-02-29. Retrieved 2007-03-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ "The Open University Provides Answers on Global Warming" (PDF) (Press release). The Open University. January 30, 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
  41. ^ Cohen, Anthony S. (2004). "Osmium isotope evidence for the regulation of atmospheric CO2 by continental weathering" (HTML/PDF). Geology. 32 (2): 157–160. doi:0.1130/G20158.1. Retrieved 2007-03-04. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  42. ^ Maslin, M. (2003-01-30). "The Clathrate Gun is firing blanks: evidence from balancing the deglacial global carbon budget". Geophysical Research Abstracts (see European Geophysical Society). 5. Retrieved 2007-03-05. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Shaviv, Nir J. (2003). "Celestial driver of Phanerozoic climate?" (PDF). GSA Today. 13 (7): 4-10. doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2003)013<0004:CDOPC>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2007-03-05. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ^ "Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Work Group I. 2001. pp. Chapter 3.7.3.2. Retrieved 2007-03-05.
  45. ^ Rahmstorf, Stefan (2004-01-27). "Cosmic Rays, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate" (PDF). Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union. 85 (4): 38–41. Retrieved 2007-03-05. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  46. ^ William Ruddiman (2005-03). "How Did Humans First Alter Global Climate?" (PDF). March 2005 issue. Scientific American. Retrieved 2007-03-05. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  47. ^ Schmidt, Gavin (2004). "A note on the relationship between ice core methane concentrations and insolation". Geophysical Research Letters. 31. doi:10.1029/2004GL021083. ISSN 0094-8276. L23206. Retrieved 2007-03-05. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Further reading

  • Amstrup, Steven (2006). "Recent observations of intraspecific predation and cannibalism among polar bears in the southern Beaufort Sea". doi:10.1007/s00300-006-0142-5. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |Journal= ignored (|journal= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Association of British Insurers Financial Risks of Climate Change, June 2005, (PDF) Accessed 7 January 2006
  • Barnett, T. P., Adam, J. C., and Lettenmaier, D. P. (2005). "Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions". Nature. 438: 303–309.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) [1]
  • Behrenfeld, M.J., O'Malley, R.T., Siegel, D.A., McClain, C.R., Sarmiento, J. L., Feldman, G. C., Milligan, A.G., Falkowski, P. G., Letelier, R. M., and Boss, E.S. (2006). "Climate-driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity". Nature. 444: 752–755.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) [2]
  • UNEP summary (2002) Climate risk to global economy, Climate Change and the Financial Services Industry, United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiatives Executive Briefing Paper (UNEP FI) (PDF) Accessed 7 January 2006

See also


External links

Scientific

Educational

Other

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_change&oldid=116427428"