Monkeys
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Western green monkey ( Chlorocebus sabaeus ) |
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| Anthropoidea | ||||||||||||
| Mivart , 1864 |
The monkeys (Anthropoidea, Simiae or Simiiformes), also referred to as "real monkeys" or "higher primates", are a relatives of the primates belonging to the dry- nosed primates . Traditionally, they were compared to the " half-apes ", but they are more closely related to the Koboldmakis than to the other representatives of this group. They are divided into the New World monkeys and the Old World monkeys , which also include humans .
features
The size of the monkeys varies between the pygmy marmoset with a head and trunk length of around 12 to 15 centimeters and a weight of around 100 grams, and the gorillas , which can stand up to 1.75 meters tall and weigh 200 kilograms can, as well as people with an average height of 1.60 to 1.80 meters, in individual cases more than 2.00 meters. Some species have a pronounced sexual dimorphism , whereby the males of some species can be twice as heavy as the females and can also differ in coat color. Their bodies are usually covered with fur , the color of which can vary from black through various shades of brown and gray to white. The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are mostly hairless, sometimes the face as well. The eyes are large and directed forward, which means a good sense of sight. As dry-nosed primates, however , their sense of smell is underdeveloped.
Since most species are tree dwellers, their limbs are adapted to the way of life. The hind legs are almost always longer and stronger than the front legs (exceptions are the Gibbons and non-human primates ) and bear the larger share of the movement. The fingers and toes are adapted for grasping. Characteristic of all species (with the exception of humans) is the opposable big toe (opposite to the other toes). The thumb is also sometimes opposable, but in species that move through the branches by hand, it is regressed. The five rays of each limb (fingers and toes) in most cases have nails instead of claws. The tail is usually long and serves primarily as a balance organ. Some New World monkeys have developed a prehensile tail . In the case of the human species and some other species, however, the tail has regressed.
distribution and habitat
By far the most individual species of monkey today is humans with a worldwide population of more than 7 billion. It has colonized all continents with the exception of Antarctica and is also the world's largest mammal.
The remaining monkey species are common in the tropical and subtropical regions of America , Africa and Asia . In America, its range extends from southern Mexico to northern Argentina . They are widespread in Africa, with the greatest species density south of the Sahara . In Madagascar there are no monkeys other than humans, here the primates are otherwise only represented by the lemurs . In Asia they are mainly represented in South and Southeast Asia , their distribution area extends to Japan and Timor . The only wild monkey in Europe other than humans is the Barbary macaque on Gibraltar, but this population was probably introduced by humans.
The habitat of the apes, with the exception of humans, are predominantly forests and other tree-covered areas. They can be found in a wide variety of forest types, from rainforests to mountain forests over 3000 meters above sea level. Some species are partially ground-dwellers, the most pronounced being the Jelada .
Way of life
With the exception of the night monkeys, monkeys are always diurnal. They have developed different types of locomotion, in addition to walking on two legs (humans) and walking on four legs, there is also vertical climbing and jumping and rocking. The majority of the ape species are predominantly or purely tree-dwellers.
In most cases, monkeys have developed complex social behavior; loners are rare. Some species form large mixed groups, others live in harem groups in which a single male gathers numerous females, and still others live in longstanding monogamous relationships. In groups, a hierarchy often develops that is determined by struggles, age, relatives and other factors.
nutrition
The majority of the monkey species are primarily herbivores . Fruits are often the main component of food, they are supplemented by leaves, flowers, tubers, mushrooms, seeds, nuts, tree sap and other parts of the plant. However, many species are omnivores and eat not only vegetable but also animal food, especially insects, spiders, bird eggs and small vertebrates.
Humans and fossil hominids are also naturally omnivores, see human nutrition . Remnants of weapons from Homo heidelbergensis have been used to document hunting activities for at least 450,000 years, but the wear and tear of teeth of the same species also led to the conclusion that rough food was found, which consisted of at least 80 percent vegetable matter. Depending on the habitat, plant or animal nutrition predominated in humans.
Reproduction
The reproduction of the monkeys is characterized by a long gestation period, a long development time for the young and a rather high life expectancy. The strategy of these animals is to invest a lot of time in rearing the young, but the reproductive rate is low. In contrast to other primates, monkeys have a simple uterus (uterus simplex) and only one pair of teats .
The gestation period is about five to nine months. In most species, single births predominate, only in the marmosets there are mostly twin births. The young animals are carried as active carriers that cling to their mother's fur - in some species also to other individuals in a social group - when they migrate and forays. They are often suckled for a few months or even years , and sexual maturity usually only occurs after a few years. In great apes, sexual maturity occurs particularly late, usually between the ages of 6 and 10, and in humans a few years later.
Life expectancy
The life expectancy of the monkeys is typically 10 to 15 years. Great apes live to be 35 to 50 years old in the wild. Of all monkeys, humans have the highest life expectancy.
Monkeys and humans
For the history of research, cultural significance and much more see primates and humans .
In German, “monkey” is also used as a swear word ; but “little monkey” can be a (condescending) endearing word . The adjective "affig" has different, exclusively negative meanings. It can mean vain, conceited, arrogant, contrived, silly, stupid, or ridiculous. To "ape" someone means to deceive them, to "ape" them, to imitate them in a ridiculous manner. “To have a monkey” is colloquial for being drunk .
In other cultures, on the other hand, some species of monkey were or are considered to be particularly wise and clever and are even revered as sacred , such as the mantled baboons in ancient Egypt or the Hanuman langurs in Hinduism .
Systematics
External system
The monkeys together with the Koboldmakis form the group of the dry- nosed primates (Haplorhini). Dry and wet-nosed primates are grouped together as primates . This is expressed in the following cladogram:
| Primates (Primates) |
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Traditionally, Koboldmakis and wet-nosed primates are grouped together as lemurs . The half-monkeys are, however, paraphyletic , since the goblin tarsiers are more closely related to the monkeys than the wet-nosed primates and are therefore no longer specified in today's systematics.
Internal system
The monkeys are divided into two groups, the New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) and the Old World monkeys (Catarrhini). The following system shows the monkeys down to the family level:
| Monkey (anthropoidea) |
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Tribal history
The division of the monkeys into the two main lines New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) and Old World monkeys (Catarrhini) is said to have taken place in the middle Eocene approx. 43 million years ago, according to molecular genetic estimates. The first fossil monkeys from Eocene deposits in China, Thailand and Burma ( Eosimias , Aseanpithecus and Amphipithecus ) cannot, however, be assigned to any of the subgroups. The same applies to the Late Eccentric Proteopithecidae and Parapithecidae ( Apidium , Parapithecus ) found in North Africa , which show the characteristics of monkeys in terms of skull structure and dentition. The rich primate fauna of the Jebel Qatrani Formation of the famous Fayum fossil deposit in Egypt, which marks the transition from the Eocene to the Oligocene at an age of 34 to 29 million years, does not only contain members of the anthropoid. In the uppermost layers of the early Oligocene, the Oligopithecidae and the Propliopithecidae ( Aegyptopithecus ) appear the first old world monkeys (Catarrhini). They already have the derived tooth formula of the Old World monkeys (reduction of the second premolar), but the ectotympanicum (a bone on which the eardrum is stretched) has not yet grown into a bony tube.
The arrival of the New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) in the New World is proven with a single left molar found in Peru from the upper jaw . It dates from the late Eocene around 35 million years ago and was described under the name Perupithecus . Branisella comes from the late Oligocene (26 million years ago) of Bolivia . The genus is documented by jawbones and individual teeth. An early radiation of the New World monkeys took place in the Lower and Middle Miocene and took place predominantly in the southern part of South America. Forms like Chilecebus , Tremacebus or Homunculus emerged from it. It is unclear here whether they are core group representatives of the New World monkeys or early members of today's lineages. The individual families of the New World monkeys emerged at the latest in the Middle Miocene and the fossils from the Upper Miocene from the La Venta site in Colombia can already be assigned to the more recent families. In addition to the ancestors of the New World monkeys, a second line of monkeys also crossed the Atlantic and colonized South America . With Ucayalipithecus from the Parapithecidae family, a form from the Amazon lowlands of Peru has been proven. So far, four teeth have been found at the Santa Rosa fossil site, whose age is around 35 to 32 million years. However, this sideline of the apes has become extinct again.
Very early evidence from the environment of the vervet monkey relatives (Cercopithecoidea) is available with individual mandibular fragments of alophe from the region west of Lake Turkana . They date to around 22 million years ago in the Lower Miocene. The first core group representatives appear in the Middle and Upper Miocene. They are 19 and 12.5 million years old, show adaptations to a partially terrestrial way of life and were assigned to the family Victoriapithecidae . These include the important finds from the Napak region in eastern Uganda . The separation of vervet monkeys and humans (hominoidea) took place about 25 million years ago. Saadanius , who occurred on the Arabian Peninsula during the middle Oligocene , is placed close to the last common ancestors of vervet monkeys and humans . Species and shape-rich primate groups, which are considered to be the earliest members of the family line of the Hominoidea, were found in deposits from the Miocene from East Africa (Uganda, Kenya) to the Arabian Peninsula. About 20 species are assigned to the Proconsulidae and Dendropithecidae . They have some features in common with recent hominoids. Their tail is reduced. Adjustments to suspensory (poor) locomotion cannot be determined. Representatives of the Hominidae in southern Europe (France, Spain, northern Italy) are also documented from the late Miocene 11 to 9 million years ago. They were assigned to the genera Oreopithecus and Dryopithecus . Like the recent great apes, they have thick tooth enamel. At least 9 million years ago, the Asiatic Ponginae, whose only representatives today are the orangutans , were separated from the European-African homininae , which include the gorillas , chimpanzees and humans.
supporting documents
- ↑ Dietrich Starck: Textbook of Special Zoology. Volume II: Vertebrates. Part 5: Mammals . Gustav Fischer, Jena 1995, ISBN 3-334-60453-5 , p. 550 (1241 pp.).
- ↑ Malcolm C. McKenna, Susan K. Bell: Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level . Columbia University Press, New York 1997, ISBN 0-231-11012-X , pp. 340 (631 pp.).
- ^ Colin P. Groves: Order Primates . In: Don E. Wilson, DeeAnn M. Reeder (Eds.): Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference . Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2005, ISBN 0-8018-8221-4 , pp. 111-184 (128 pp.).
- ^ Wolfgang Maier: Primates . In: Wilfried Westheide, Reinhard Rieger (Ed.): Special Zoology. Part 2: vertebrates or skulls . 1st edition. Spectrum Academic Publishing House (Elsevier), Heidelberg / Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-8274-0307-3 , p. 553-573 (567 pp.).
- ↑ Rolf Sauermost, Doris Outgoing (ed.) Encyclopedia of biology in fourteen volumes. Volume 1: A to Arj . Spektrum Akademischer Verlag (Elsevier), Heidelberg 1999, ISBN 3-8274-0326-X , Affen, p. 108 (452 pp.).
- ↑ Kim Hill: Hunting and human evolution. In: Journal of Human Evolution. Volume 11, No. 6, 1982, pp. 521-544, doi: 10.1016 / S0047-2484 (82) 80107-3 .
- ↑ Gary J. Sawyer, Viktor Deak: The Long Way to Man. Life pictures from 7 million years of evolution. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg 2008, p. 153.
- ↑ Jean-Jacques Jaeger, Olivier Chavasseau, Vincent Lazzari, Aung Naing Soe, Chit Sein, Anne Le Maître, Hla Shwe and Yaowalak Chaimanee: New Eocene primate from Myanmar shares dental characters with African Eocene crown anthropoids. In: Nature Communications. Volume 10, 2019, p. 3531, doi: 10.1038 / s41467-019-11295-6 .
- ↑ a b c d Wilfried Westheide & Reinhard Rieger: Special Zoology Part 2: Vertebrae and Skull Animals , 2nd edition, Spectrum Academic Publishing House Heidelberg • Berlin, 2010, ISBN 978-3-8274-2039-8 , page 575 a. 576.
- ↑ Mariano Bond, Marcelo F. Tejedor, Kenneth E. Campbell Jr, Laura Chornogubsky, Nelson Novo, Francisco Goin: Eocene primates of South America and the African origins of New World monkeys. In: Nature. Volume 520, No. 7548, 2015, pp. 538-541, doi: 10.1038 / nature14120
- ↑ M. Takai, F. Anaya, N. Shigehara, T. Setoguchi: New fossil materials of the earliest new world monkey, Branisella boliviana, and the problem of platyrrhine origins. In: American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Volume 111, No. 2, February 2000, doi : 10.1002 / (SICI) 1096-8644 (200002) 111: 2 <263 :: AID-AJPA10> 3.0.CO; 2-6 , ISSN 0275-2565 , PMID 10640951 , Pp. 263-281.
- ^ Richard F. Kay: Biogeography in deep time - What do phylogenetics, geology, and paleoclimate tell us about early platyrrhine evolution? In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. Volume 82, 2015, pp. 358-374.
- ↑ Laurent Marivaux, Sylvain Adnet, Ali J. Altamirano-Sierra, Myriam Boivin, François Pujos, Anusha Ramdarshan, Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi, Julia V. Tejada-Lara, Pierre-Olivier Antoine: Neotropics provide insights into the emergence of New World monkeys : New dental evidence from the late Oligocene of Peruvian Amazonia. In: Journal of Human Evolution . Volume 97, 2016, pp. 159-175.
- ↑ Erik R. Seiffert, Marcelo F. Tejedor, John G. Fleagle, Nelson M. Novo, Fanny M. Cornejo, Mariano Bond, Dorien de Vries, Kenneth E. Campbell Jr .: A parapithecid stem anthropoid of African origin in the Paleogene of South America. In: Science. Volume 368 (6487), 2020, pp. 194–197, doi: 10.1126 / science.aba1135 .
- ↑ David Tab Rasmussen, Anthony R. Friscia, Mercedes Gutierrez, John Kappelman, Ellen R. Miller, Samuel Muteti, Dawn Reynoso, James B. Rossie, Terry L. Spell, Neil J. Tabor, Elizabeth Gierlowski-Kordesch, Bonnie F. Jacobs, Benson Kyongo, Mathew Macharwas, Francis Muchemi: Primitive Old World monkey from the earliest Miocene of Kenya and the evolution of cercopithecoid bilophodonty. In: PNAS. Volume 116 (13), 2019, pp. 6051-6056, doi: 10.1073 / pnas.1815423116 .
- ↑ David Pilbeam, Alan Walker: Fossil Monkeys from the Miocene of Napak, North-East Uganda. In: Nature. Volume 220, 1968, pp. 657-660
- ↑ Martin Pickford, Brigitte Senut, Sarah Musalizi, Dominique Gommery and Christopher Ssebuyungo: Early Miocene Victoriapithecid Monkey from Napak, Uganda. In: Geo-Pal Uganda. Volume 12, 2019, pp. 1–17.
- ↑ Iyad S. Zalmout, William J. Sanders, Laura M. MacLatchy, Gregg F. Gunnell, Yahya A. Al-Mufarreh, Mohammad A. Ali, Abdul-Azziz H. Nasser, Abdu M. Al-Masari, Salih A. Al-Sobhi, Ayman O. Nadhra, Adel H. Matari, Jeffrey A. Wilson, Philip D. Gingerich: New Oligocene primate from Saudi Arabia and the divergence of apes and Old World monkeys. In: Nature. Volume 466, 2010, pp. 360-364, doi: 10.1038 / nature09094 .
literature
- Thomas Geissmann: Comparative Primatology. Springer-Verlag 2003, ISBN 3-540-43645-6
