Caesar's campaigns in Britain

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Caesar's campaigns in Britain were two military invasions into Britain , which the Roman general and later dictator Gaius Iulius Caesar in the years 55 and 54 BC. Performed as part of his Gallic War . There were not yet any permanent conquests for the Roman Empire . Only about 100 years later did part of the island become a province of the empire under Emperor Claudius .

First invasion 55 BC Chr.

As a reason for his landing in Britain, Caesar gives that the Britons supported the Gallic tribes against him. Fugitive Belgians were taken in on the island; and the Venetians , who were maritime trade with the Britons, would have it in 56 BC. Asked for military aid against the Romans. Perhaps the Roman general also wanted to exploit Britain's mineral resources. In any case, called Cicero it a disappointing discovery that there was no gold and silver treasures in Britain, and after one of Suetonius used caesar critical source of future dictator is said to have made his expedition for the hope of pearl finds. English patriotic historians of the 18th and 19th centuries (for example Edward Gibbon ) criticized the expedition of the Romans as a desire to conquer and search for fabulous treasures beyond the “natural limits” of their empire. The decisive factor was probably that Caesar wanted to increase his military merits for domestic political propaganda (see below).

According to the geographer Strabo , the Venetians carried out in 56 BC A revolt to prevent a possible, trade-threatening invasion of Caesar on the island. The general must have been following this plan for a long time. Caesar began his campaign with relatively weak forces but only in the late summer of 55 BC. When it was quite late for that. He was probably only planning a military-supported reconnaissance tour of the island, which was relatively unknown to the Romans. Merchants, who owing to their trade relations had to be well acquainted with the conditions in Britain, could not or would not give any suitable information about the way of life and war strategies of the islanders or suitable landing sites. The tribune, Gaius Volusenus, who was sent on a warship to gather information, probably explored the Kent coast , but did not dare to go ashore and returned after five days to report. Emissaries from some British tribes, who had been made aware of Caesar's plans for an invasion by merchants, also came and assured them that they were ready to submit. But Caesar sent them back to the island with Commius , the king of the Atrebates who was allied with Rome , so that they should win more tribes to an alliance with the Romans.

From an unspecified port (probably Portus Itius, which is probably to be found near today's Boulogne-sur-Mer or Wissant) in the land of the Morinians , Caesar started with 80 troop carriers and an unknown number of warships, on which two legions (Legio VII and Legio X) were stationed during the night the crossing. His cavalry was to follow him as soon as possible on 18 other cargo ships anchored in an unknown port eight miles away (perhaps Ambleteuse), while the armies that remained, under the orders of the legates Quintus Titurius Sabinus and Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta, were to finally subjugate the Morinians and Menapier . The Legate Publius Sulpicius Rufus finally had to protect the Gallic ports.

Landing at Dubris (now Dover ) proved too difficult, as numerous, heavily armed locals waited there on dominant hills and cliffs and could easily throw their spears at landing ships. After holding a council of war, because the tide and winds were favorable, Caesar sailed seven miles along the coast to go ashore in a more accessible place. The berth was the Isle of Thanet in northeast Kent, according to recent research . The Britons followed the Roman ships along the coast with horses and chariots and tried to prevent them from landing by force. An additional problem for the Romans was that the size of their ships prevented them from getting close to the coast. Therefore, the soldiers, shot at by the enemy from land, had to swim from deeper waters to the beach or row there in small boats. The accordingly demotivated legions are said to have been encouraged by an eagle-bearer who jumped into the water first. With guns and slingshots fired from the warships into the open flank of the enemy, Caesar was able to push the Britons back somewhat so that his soldiers could get to the shore. There they were attacked immediately and were often still disoriented; but in the end they were able to drive out the Britons, but not pursue them any further, since the cavalrymen's ships had not yet arrived because of adverse winds.

Caesar set up a base on the coast, received envoys from the Britons asking for peace, and had Commius arrested on his landing brought to him. According to his own account, he allegedly managed to intimidate the British princes into holding him hostage and releasing their armies. But when the ships of his cavalry came into view, they were driven back to Gaul by a storm. That same night, the Romans (who were unfamiliar with the tides ) were surprised by a spring tide that filled the warships that had been drawn to dryness. At the same time, the storm damaged or destroyed the anchored cargo ships and made them unseaworthy, so that Caesar's return journey seemed endangered. The islanders then renewed the hostilities, wanted to keep him in Britain for the winter and cut off the food supply. A legion entrusted with the foraging was lured into a single, not yet harvested field, ambushed by the enemies hidden in the adjacent forest while mowing, attacked with chariots and cavalry and covered with a hail of bullets. Allegedly noticed by a cloud of dust, Caesar came to the aid of the beleaguered legion with four cohorts and saved them. After a storm had prevented further fighting for several days, there was an attack on the Roman camp, which Caesar easily repulsed, using 30 riders newly recruited by Commius. His troops put down numerous fleeing Britons and burned their homesteads.

Because of the late season and his damaged ships, Caesar could not risk a later return journey and therefore granted the islanders a peace. Although he doubled the number of hostages to be placed, he was content with the fact that these should later be extradited to him to Gaul; but only two tribes met this condition. The Roman general drove back to the mainland on his repaired ships. So all in all he hadn't achieved much success. Nevertheless, his report aroused great admiration in Rome, so that the Senate decided on a twenty-day festival of thanks.

Second invasion 54 BC Chr.

After leaving the winter quarters at the beginning of next year Caesar went first to northern Italy, then Illyria and defeated there more raids Pirusten . His primary goal, however, was a second, this time better prepared, invasion of Britain. Cicero wrote to his friend Gaius Trebatius Testa and his brother Quintus who were to accompany Caesar and asked Trebatius to bring him a chariot and his brother for a description of the island. The former did not take part in the expedition, but Quintus and Caesar himself sent the speaker several letters.

In winter the Roman general had flatter and wider transport ships built that could be loaded and pulled to the beach faster than those he had used on the previous year's expedition. They were high-speed sailors, which were probably built according to the ship technology of the Venetians. After his return from Illyria, Caesar found around 600 ships of this type and 28 warships ready for departure during the inspection of all winter camps. Army and fleet were now to assemble in the port of Portus Itius according to his orders; he himself first moved into the Treveri area and suppressed hostile elements there. When he returned to Portus Itius, he learned that 60 ships built by the Meldii on the Marne had to turn back because of a storm, whereas the rest of the fleet was ready to sail. He also took many nobles from various Gallic tribes on board to prevent a rebellion in his absence; Dumnorix , who resisted for a long time, was finally killed. Labienus was supposed to secure the Gaulish coast with a sizeable army, as well as providing grain supplies to Britain and rest in Gaul. After the sunset on a July day, Caesar sailed with a much larger force than last year (five legions and 2000 horsemen) on allegedly 800 ships, was driven off at night and had to correct his course by diligent rowing until he was at the spot in Britain at noon which had seemed to him the best place to land last year. This time it succeeded without fighting, as no enemies appeared. According to Caesar, they were supposedly frightened by the large number of ships, perhaps they had to gather their troops first.

After landing, Caesar left Quintus Atrius with ten cohorts and 300 horsemen to guard the ships and, after a twelve miles inland night march, came across the Britons' chariot warriors posted above a river (probably the Stour ). These were driven out by the Romans and withdrew into a heavily fortified entrenchment in the forest. Caesar could easily take this position, too, but refrained from pursuing his opponents in order to be able to set up a camp himself because of the advanced hour. On the other hand, he sent out troops the next morning to track down the enemy, but learned from messengers from Atrius that his fleet had been damaged again by a storm. He called his soldiers back, went to his ships and found 40 of them completely destroyed. Labienus received the order to build more ships. Meanwhile, Caesar had his entire fleet dragged onto the beach for the next ten days and connected to the camp by walls. In addition, as many ships as possible were repaired. On September 1st, the Roman general, who was still on the coast, wrote a letter to Cicero. He had probably heard of the death of his only daughter Julia then , and out of respect for his grief, Cicero did not answer.

The Britons had meanwhile given Prince Cassivellaunus, who resided inland north of the Thames, supreme command of the war, although he had previously made war on most of his neighboring tribes. Due to a strong influx, he also received large reinforcements. After Caesar's return to the River Stour, he defeated the Britons, who fled into the woods, but then attacked the Romans when they were setting up their camps and withdrew again unmolested. In these first skirmishes, the tribune, Quintus Laberius Durus, fell . When the next day three legions and the cavalry went to get food under the command of Gaius Trebonius , they were attacked by an army of the united British tribes, but they repulsed them and killed numerous enemies while fleeing.

Now the Roman general wanted to visit Cassivellaunus in his own realm and therefore marched to the Thames, but found the only shallow ford (probably at Westminster ) on the other side of the river strongly defended; In addition, pointed stakes had been driven into the ground on the bank and in the river. Nevertheless, Caesar managed to make the transition and put the enemy to flight. Cassivellaunus saw that he was inferior to Caesar in open combat, dismissed most of his troops and only used 4,000 very mobile chariot fighters. They positioned themselves in guerrilla tactics in inaccessible terrain that was very familiar to them and attacked scattered Roman troops. The Britons also moved as much food and livestock as possible out of reach of the legions to make it difficult for them to supply them.

But since Cassivellaunus had overthrown the king of the powerful tribe of the Trinovantes and forced his son Mandubracius to flee, ambassadors from this tribe came to Caesar and offered their support. After they had handed over hostages and grain supplies to Caesar, he sent them Mandubracius, who accompanied him, as the new ruler. Now the tribes of the Cenimagnen, Segontiaks, Ankalites, Bibroker and Casser submitted to the Romans and disclosed the location of the oppidum of Cassivellaunus, which was protected by ramparts and ditches and was in inaccessible forests with swamps. Perhaps this oppidum can be identified with a hill fortress at Wheathampstead and was thus six miles northeast of Verulamium (now St. Albans), the later capital of the Catuvellaunen . In any case, Caesar was able to conquer the fortress of Cassivellaunus and capture a lot of cattle in the process.

In order to counterattack, Cassivellaunus informed the four kings of Kent, Cingetorix , Carvilius , Taximagulus and Segovax that they should attack the Romans' camp to force Caesar to withdraw. But the fleet's guards defeated the attackers, and they captured a chief named Lugotorix . Thereupon Cassivellaunus, who turned to Commius to mediate, asked for peace. Caesar responded because he feared revolts in Gaul because of his long absence and had to return because of the late season if he did not want to winter in Britain. He demanded the position of hostages, annual tributes and forbade any attack on the Trinovantes. On September 26th, Caesar wrote to Cicero about the outcome of his enterprise, stating that he had taken hostages but not much booty and was now on his way back. He drove back to the mainland with his entire force without leaving any occupation troops in Britain. So he couldn't hope that his demands would be met. In Roman domestic politics, however, he had achieved prestige success through his expeditions to the distant, northern country of Britain, which were in and for themselves only expensive but not very profitable, especially with regard to his great opponent Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus , who had achieved great victories in Asia.

New knowledge of Britain

Britain was known to the Greeks and Romans at least since the visit of the navigator Pytheas of Massalia (4th century BC). Caesar made numerous other discoveries through his own observation and inquiries with Gallic merchants and British princes about more distant regions of the island. Before recounting his second campaign, he gives a brief outline of the climate and geography of Britain and the way of life of its inhabitants.

Caesar describes the island as triangular with a total circumference of 2000 miles and mentions the two nearby islands of Hibernia ( Ireland ) and Mona ( Isle of Man ). He correctly portrays the winter climate as warmer than in Gaul. By measurements, he found out that the nights are shorter than on the mainland. He found the port at Dover first, although he did not land there (see above). The geographical knowledge he gained for the Romans was greatly expanded over the next 100 years through maritime trade and diplomatic missions, but nevertheless formed an important basis for the invasion of Emperor Claudius in Britain in 43 AD.

The Britons were barbarians typical of Caesar and similar in nature to the Gauls. He correctly describes the inhabitants of the southern coastal regions as Gauls who had conquered these areas militarily, as evidenced by the same tribal names on both sides of the English Channel (Atrebaten, Belger). Caesar reports that the Britons practiced polygamy , wore their hair long and painted themselves blue as a military deterrent. In the coastal regions there were extensive areas of cultivation of grain, in the more mountainous northern interior regions there was more of a livestock industry. The Druidism had come, according to Caesar from Britain to Gaul and the exact form of the religion still successes on the island. The Roman general is of course particularly interested in the way the Britons fight and describes their military tactics with the chariots, which the Romans were unfamiliar with, and which they used every day.

Caesar mentions tin (for the production of bronze) in particular as regards mineral resources, but remains imprecise, merely speaking of the fact that it is mined inland. He also mentions low iron deposits on the coast and the import of copper. Copper or gold coins served as currency.

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The main source for Caesar's two campaigns in Britain is his depiction in the Gallic War (4.20–36; 5.1; 5.8–23). Some of the letters from Cicero's correspondence, which are cited in the notes, are particularly important for questions of dating. The other sources are less important, for example Cassius Dio (39.50–53; 40.1–3), Plutarch ( Caesar 23) and Florus (1.45.16–18).

In the short report of the late antique historian Orosius (6,9,2-9), which follows Titus Livius , the tribune Quintus Laberius Durus, who fell in Britain, is incorrectly referred to as Labienus ; All medieval British histories followed this mistake. The early medieval British historian and clergyman Beda Venerabilis adheres almost verbatim in his account ( Church history 1,2) to the report of Orosius, but adds that in his time, around 800 years after Caesar's invasion, remains of the fortifications of Cassivellaunus could have been seen.

All later English historians (for example Nennius ) bring distorted stories mixed with legends.

Remarks

  1. ^ Caesar, Gallic War 2.4; 3.8-9; 4.20; 5.12.
  2. ↑ Cicero, ad familiares 7.7; ad Atticum 4.17; Suetonius, Caesar 47.
  3. ↑ Luciano Canfora: Caesar. The democratic dictator . CH Beck, Munich, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-406-46640-0 , p. 116 f.
  4. ↑ Strabo 4,4,1.
  5. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4,20,1–4.
  6. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4,21,1; 4.21.9.
  7. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4, 21, 5–8.
  8. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4,21,3 f .; 4.22.3-4.23.1.
  9. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4, 23, 2–6.
  10. ↑ Caesar's landing site discovered in England. scinexx.de, November 28, 2017.
  11. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4.24 to 26.
  12. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4, 27–35.
  13. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 4,36,1–4; 4,38,4 f.
  14. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,1,1; 5.1.5-8.
  15. ↑ Cicero, ad familiares 7.6 ff .; 7.10; 7.17; ad Quintum fratrem 2.13; 2.15; 3.1; ad Atticum 4.15; 4.17 f.
  16. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,1,2-4.
  17. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5: 2-4.
  18. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,5,1-5,7,9.
  19. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,8,1-6.
  20. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,9,1-8.
  21. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,10,1–5; 5.11.7.
  22. ↑ Cicero, ad Quintum fratrem 3.1.
  23. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5, 11, 8 f .; 5.15.1-5; 5.17.5.
  24. ↑ The collector of war lists, Polyainos , reports ( Strategemata 8,23,5) that Caesar forced the crossing of the river defended by Cassivellaunus with the help of an armored elephant, probably a confusion with the British campaign of the emperor Claudius, who actually used elephants began.
  25. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5.18 f.
  26. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War, 5.20 f.
  27. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5.22.
  28. ↑ Cicero, ad Atticum 4.18.
  29. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5.23.
  30. ↑ Luciano Canfora: Caesar. The democratic dictator . CH Beck, Munich, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-406-46640-0 , p. 118.
  31. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5.12 to 14.
  32. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,12,6-5; 5.13.7.
  33. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,12,1–3; 5.14.1-5.
  34. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 6:13.
  35. ^ Caesar, Gallic War 4.33.
  36. ↑ Caesar, Gallic War 5,12,4 f.

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