Gallic War

Map of Gaul at the time of Caesar (58 BC)

In ancient historical research, the Gaulish War is the conquest of "free Gaul " by the Roman general (and later sole ruler) Gaius Iulius Caesar in the years 58 to 51/50 BC. Chr. Designated.

The most important source is the Commentarii de bello Gallico written by Caesar , whose book 8 was written by Aulus Hirtius , an officer of Caesar. The work, which is also of literary importance, allows the campaigns to be followed very closely. Nevertheless, the work is problematic because Caesar described the event from his point of view. Other sources - such as the historical work of Cassius Dio - only partially offer a corrective.

Cause of war

In the politically fragmented "free Gaul" existed a large number of tribes whose names are mainly known through Caesar. They either consisted mostly of Celts or there was a Celtic upper class over the originally indigenous population. In Caesar's time, kingship had virtually disappeared, giving way to an aristocratic form of rule almost everywhere. Some tribes like the Haedu were allied with Rome. Gaul was partially drawn into the migratory movements of various peoples; one of them gave Caesar the occasion for a first military intervention.

The Helvetii , who settled in what is now Switzerland, came under pressure from the Germanic Ariovistus , a prince of the Suebi , and intended to emigrate to Gaul. They turned in the spring of 58 BC. BC to Caesar as the Roman governor there, as they wanted to cross the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis for this purpose , but Caesar refused. He had a wall built between the Jura and Lake Geneva to make it impossible for them to march through. The Helvetii then bypassed the Roman province. Nevertheless, Caesar gathered troops, including two newly raised legions in northern Italy , left the borders of the Roman province of Narbonensis and pursued the Helvetii, defeated them in a battle near Bibracte and forced them to turn back.

This approach by Caesar has been assessed differently in modern research, since Roman governors were formally forbidden to carry out military actions outside the provincial borders without state legitimation. But now there was a senate resolution that the Haeduern should be given help in the event of a threat; Of course, it is questionable to what extent Caesar used this only as a pretext to be able to actively intervene in the events. Apparently the success had awakened Caesar's ambition, who finally had to strive (entirely within the framework of the Roman political system) to achieve the greatest possible position of power during the years of his governorship in order to gain influence in Rome. Since, according to their own ideas, the Romans only waged justified wars, Caesar could not intervene in free Gaul for no reason - and found a reason in the actions of the aforementioned Ariovistus. He had waged war for the Sequaner and was rewarded with donations of land in what is now Alsace . The settlement of the Germanic tribes to the left of the Rhine, which in his opinion was the border between Gaul and Germania, was used by Caesar as a pretext in order to To strike against them: After Caesar, Ariovistus, who is described in gloomy colors, planned the submission of all of Gaul, but the truth of this statement (like many others in Caesar's work) is more than doubtful. Caesar's campaign, who in this context acted as the patron of "all Gauls", was a complete success: Ariovist's army was defeated, and the Suebi prince himself barely escaped.

Many contemporaries saw Caesar's approach as nothing more than excessive ambition. The historian Cassius Dio, who lived in the 3rd century AD, even knows how to report that Caesar's own officers refused to start a war simply because of the ambitions of their general. It was only through a speech (which was hardly given as it was described by Cassius Dio) that he was able to induce her to fight. Even Caesar's clever arguments in his Commentarii cannot hide the fact that the war was wanted by him. He probably also had the example of his temporary ally Pompeius in mind, who had celebrated fabulous success in the East years earlier and had thus become the first general of the republic. In Gaul there was now an opportunity to outstrip Pompey.

The conquest of Gaul (57-53 BC)

Caesar's campaigns during the Gallic War

In the spring of 57 BC Caesar began a campaign, the aim of which was to subdue all of the otherworldly (free) Gaul up to the Rhine. An alleged conspiracy by the Belgians and other Gauls served this time as a pretext. Caesar had reinforced his troops for this purpose, he now had a total of eight legions (this number rose to ten in the summer of 53 BC), although not all troops were in the field and often did not reach their full nominal strength. Such a concentration of military power in the hands of a governor was bound to cause concern in the Senate, especially since Caesar was to shape the soldiers into a powerful and personal troop in the years that followed: This was not only due to Caesar's charisma, he understood it is also to offer the troops a material incentive again and again. So he doubled their wages and ran regular raids in Gaul, which also filled his coffers.

In his approach, Caesar was able to rely (at least for the time being) on ​​Gallic allies such as the Haedu, who had profited greatly from the Roman intervention the year before. In Gaul, Caesar repeatedly exploited the opposition of various tribes in his favor. The Roman troops advanced quickly to the north, the Belgians were subdued in bitter fighting (with the Nervian tribe, for example, being almost completely wiped out). A Roman advance to the Atlantic coast followed. According to Caesar, "all of Gaul was now pacified" - which was not the reality. Because as early as 56 BC BC the Romans had to overthrow several Gauls uprising movements. In the following years Caesar led several subjugation campaigns against the Gauls in the summer months, which began with a Rhine crossing in late summer 55 BC. And two naval expeditions to Britain (in the summer of 55 and in the spring of 54 BC) were interrupted. These served mainly to demonstrate Roman power (see Caesar's campaigns in Britain ).

On his return from Britain in the autumn of 54 BC. Caesar had to put down several uprisings of the Gauls again, for example that of the Carnutes , since the Gauls were angry about the taxes and the provision of auxiliary troops. Caesar suffered in November 54 BC. At Aduatuca the most sensitive defeat of the Gallic War, in which a legion and five cohorts were destroyed by the Eburones under the part-king Ambiorix . Caesar, who had wintered with three legions in Samarobriva ( Amiens ), where there was a large Roman store, then proceeded mercilessly against the Eburon civil population.

The result was that in 53 BC The assembled Gallic nobility gave way to Caesar and consented to the execution of the leaders. Because the Teutons had sent troops across the Rhine, Caesar undertook a second Rhine crossing. Now Gaul seemed secure, so Caesar released the legions to their winter quarters. This apparent calm, just as Caesar was once again in northern Italy due to domestic political problems, broke out in early 52 BC. The great Gallic uprising.

The Gallic uprising under Vercingetorix (52 BC)

The great Gauls uprising, which put Caesar's work of conquest in serious danger, began in Cenabum ( Orléans ): the city was conquered by the Carnutes, who also killed several Roman citizens. The Gauls elected a young Arverni prince named Vercingetorix to lead the uprising . The attempts of Vercingetorix to isolate the Roman garrisons, which were in their Gallic winter quarters, from Caesar failed. Caesar's troops crossed the snow-covered Cevennes and retook Cenabum. Even when the Gauls put the Roman supply lines under pressure and pursued a scorched earth strategy , they did not succeed in starving the Romans, who were able to take the important supply base Avaricum (see Battle of Avaricum ) and now went on the offensive. Caesar's best general, Titus Labienus , was to bind the Gallic troops, while Caesar himself wanted to strike against the Arverni. However, at the Battle of Gergovia , the Romans suffered a defeat that forced them to retreat. The Haeduer and some other tribes who had previously been loyal to Caesar now joined the uprising.

The siege of Alesia with the double defensive ring

Still, the Romans were by no means defeated. Rather, Caesar succeeded in repelling the Gauls under Vercingetorix near Dijon in the battle of the Armançon . Now the somewhat puzzling retreat of Vercingetorix to Alesia ( Battle of Alesia ) followed. The place was well fortified, but the Arverni deprived itself of its mobility. Caesar acted quickly: he put a huge double siege ring around the city, which on the one hand kept the Gauls inside and the advancing Gaulish relief army outside. In the ensuing attacks, the Gauls suffered heavy losses, while the Roman losses were limited. Neither the relief army nor the starving Gauls in Alesia made the breakthrough. The Gallic army finally withdrew, the enclosed Gauls surrendered at the end of September 52 BC. Chr. Vercingetorix himself was taken to Rome as a prisoner, where he was later executed.

The end of the war

Caesar had his troops move into winter quarters after the conquest of Alesia. The following year was marked by further campaigns, for example against the Carnutes and Treverians ; the Gauls probably hoped to be able to hold out until the end of Caesar's governorship. But for this reason, too, Caesar once again proceeded with the greatest severity. In other cases, however, he deliberately spared the enemy - here Caesar's proverbial mildness ( clementia ), which was to be of use to him in the subsequent Roman civil war , was probably already evident . Gradually, the Gauls, who were still in the uprising, finally submitted to submission - the last the Kadurkers in their fortress Uxellodunum - who now lacked a central leadership figure.

Since the Gauls were already tired from the long and costly struggle, they now accepted Roman rule, especially since Caesar skillfully won leading nobles for his cause. Nevertheless, the outcome of the Gallic War was terrible. Even if all sources are ultimately speculative, the loss of human life must have been immense, especially since the infrastructure was often thoroughly destroyed by looting. The country was in 50 BC It was militarily secured, even in the civil war that followed, in which Caesar deployed the troops tried and tested in the Gallic War against Pompey and the senators who supported him.

In the period that followed, Gaul was quickly Romanized and became a heartland of the empire, in which the developed Gallo-Roman culture of late antiquity was to persist even years after the fall of the Western Roman Empire .

The result of the Roman expansion in 40 BC Chr.

Reception of the Gallic War

The Gallic War, especially the Gallic resistance under Vercingetorix, which ended in the defeat at Alesia, became a national myth in France, especially in the 19th century , comparable to the heroization of Arminius in Germany. Numerous statues in France therefore commemorate the kings and princes of the Gauls. The comic series Asterix , for example, takes up this myth in a humorous way .

Timetable

(all information BC)

• 59: Caesar becomes consul and receives the provinces of Illyricum and Gallia cisalpina for five years. Shortly thereafter, the province of Gallia Narbonensis was added.
• 58: In March the Helvetii begin their march. They are defeated by Caesar in late June, who also defeats Ariovistus in mid-September.
• 57: Campaigns against the Belgians.
• 56: The tribes of the Menapier and Morini in northeastern Gaul resist the Romans, who undertake successful campaigns in Aquitaine and what is now Normandy . Caesar's command is extended for five years.
• 55: Caesar defeats Germanic tribes that crossed the Rhine and makes the first crossing of the Rhine. First intervention in Britain.
• 54: Second expedition to Britain. In November: uprising of the Eburones under Ambiorix and devastating defeat of Roman associations at Aduatuca .
• 53: Roman punitive expedition to Belgica. Devastation of the tribal area of ​​the Eburones .
• 52: At the beginning of the year the Gallic uprising breaks out. In spring / summer Avaricum falls to the Romans, who also succeed against the Parisii. Gallic victory at Gergovia, whereupon the successful Roman siege of Alesia follows: Vercingetorix surrenders at the end of September.
• 51: Successful Roman military operations, the organized Gallic resistance largely collapses.
• 50: Smaller Roman operations in central Gaul. The country is militarily secured.
• 49: Beginning of the civil war, Caesar crosses the Rubicon .

literature

In general, reference is made to the relevant Caesar biographies and general descriptions of the Roman Republic.

• Klaus Bringmann : History of the Roman Republic. Munich 2002.
• Werner Dahlheim : Julius Caesar. The honor of the warrior and the plight of the state. Paderborn 2005.
• Kate Gilliver: Caesar's Gallic Wars. Oxford 2002.
• Christian Goudineau: César et la Gaule. Paris 1990.
• Christian Goudineau: Caesar and Vercingetorix (French original edition: L'année terrible - 52 avant J.-C. ). Mainz on the Rhine 2003.
• Ulrich Maier: Caesar's campaigns in Gaul (58–51 BC) in their connection with urban Roman politics. Bonn 1978.
• Christian Meier : Caesar . 5th edition Munich 2002.
• Markus Schauer : The Gallic War. History and Deception in Caesar's Masterpiece. Beck, Munich 2016.
• Georg Veith: History of the campaigns of C. Julius Caesars. Vienna 1906.

Web links

Commons : Gallic War  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Wikiversity: Caesar: De bello Gallico (reading course)  - course materials

• Karin Schlott: Archaeologists are digging up Caesar's camp near Gergovia. In: Spektrum.de . July 6, 2020 . 

Remarks

1. ↑ Cf. FE Adcock, Caesar als Writer , Göttingen 1959 (English 1956); summarizing Michael von Albrecht , History of Roman Literature , 3rd paperback edition, Munich 2003, vol. 1, pp. 326–347, and Meier, Caesar , pp. 309 ff.
2. ↑ An older, but brief and informative overview is provided by Pierre Grimal : Die Eroberung Galliens . In: Pierre Grimal (Ed.): The construction of the Roman Empire. The Mediterranean World in Antiquity III (= Fischer Weltgeschichte . Volume 7). Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main 1966, p. 166 ff.
3. ↑ justification Caesar: De Bello Gallico 1,35,4. On the other hand, see Bringmann, Geschichte , p. 323f. Similar to Dahlheim, Caesar , p. 102, since the ambassadors of the Haedu found Caesar already on the march, quote ibid .: "Caesar himself had decided to take up the fight".
4. ↑ Caesar, de bello Gallico 1.30-32. On the other hand, see the brief summary by Bringmann, Geschichte , p. 324f.
5. ↑ Cassius Dio 38,35,2. Cassius Dio was probably able to fall back on alternative (now lost) sources.
6. ↑ See for example Meier, Caesar , pp. 288 ff.
7. ↑ Caesar, de bello Gallico 2.1.
8. ^ For a summary, see Bringmann, Geschichte , pp. 329–331.
9. ↑ Caesar, de bello Gallico 2.35.
10. ↑ Campaigns in the summer months were the rule in antiquity, in the winter months fortified camps were built by the Romans; see. on this Veith, Geschichte der Feldzüge , p. 63f.
11. ↑ Caesar, de bello Gallico , 5: 24-37.
12. ↑ On the domestic political situation in Rome at the time, see Bringmann, Geschichte , p. 331 ff.
13. ↑ See the 7th book by Caesars de bello Gallico ; a brief overview can also be found at Gottwein.de .
14. ↑ Caesar claims that the army patterned by the Gauls comprised 8,000 horsemen and 250,000 foot soldiers, which is certainly grossly exaggerated: Caesar, de Bello Gallico 7,76,3.
15. ↑ Plutarch states that one million Gauls allegedly lost their lives in the Gallic War and another million people were enslaved (Plutarch, Caesar 15, 5 ).
16. ↑ See Meier, Caesar , p. 401 ff.