Helvetier

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Map of Gaul at the time of Caesar (58 BC), with the location of Helvetia in the east of Gallia Celtica

The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe who lived in the 1st century BC. Settled in what is now the Swiss Central Plateau and in southwest Germany . The Helvetii are best known for their role in Julius Caesar's reports on the Gallic War .

According to Julius Caesar, around 60 BC Four Helvetian tribes ( pagi ), of which he calls the Verbigen and the Tiguriner . Also Poseidonios called four sub-tribes, including the Tougener and Tout Onen. It is controversial whether the latter part of the tribe is identical to the Teutons, who Livy calls Germanic peoples .

After the Romans withdrew in the 5th century, the Helvetii became an important part of the Alemanni and adopted their dialects. A forced assimilation is to be questioned, as the late, the political and economic weakness of the Celts led to a voluntary transition. Only when the Helvetic Republic was founded in 1798 was the Swiss territory re-established with the Helvetians. With the founding of the federal state in 1848, the Latin name Confoederatio Helvetica was introduced as the official name for Switzerland in addition to the name in the four national languages .

history

Tradition and settlement area

The first historical mention of the Celts comes from the Greek historian Hekataios of Miletus from around 500 BC. He mentions that they lived north of the Greek colony of Massilia . The Helvetii are made tangible for the first time through an inscription on a pottery shard from Mantua . There is the word eluveitie in an Etruscan alphabet , which is identified as the Etruscan form of the Celtic word Helvetios ("the Helvetier"). It is assumed that the Eluveitie belonged to an Etruscan family descended from Helvetians. Coins from the 2nd century BC A nobleman (king?) Named Atullos is known from the oppidum Heidengraben . The first reliable written mention of the Helvetii comes from the Greek historian Poseidonios, who describes them as "rich in gold, but peaceful", but does not mention where they lived.

According to the Greek geographer Ptolemy and the Roman historian Tacitus , the Helvetii lived around 100 BC. BC still in the area between the Danube, Rhine and Main. They evaded this area due to the advance of Germanic tribes into northwestern Switzerland: «In the 1st century BC. In BC, the Germanic tribes invading from the north and east (displaced the local population), which soon led to a noticeable thinning of the settlement. The Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, which, according to the literary sources, is to be found in [today's Main-Tauber region ], was driven south, into what is now Switzerland. "

According to Ptolemy, there was a Helvetier wasteland in southern Germany . According to modern research, the extract is from the end of the 2nd century BC. Happened in the course of the raids of the Cimbri and Ambrones , which the tribes of the Tigurin and the Toutonen (Teutons) probably joined. The former settled north of Lake Geneva after the battle of Vercellae , while the latter were either destroyed at Aix-en-Provence or were absorbed by the other tribes.

The exact determination of the prehistoric Helvetic settlement areas is made even more problematic by an inscription from Magdalensberg in Austria. There, the Elveti appear as one of a total of eight Eastern Alpine tribes that donated an imperial monument. The lack of the initial Spirant does not speak against a name equality with the Helvetians, as in many cases the H- Latin authors had no phonological basis and often appears seemingly unmotivated in the spelling of "exotic" names (cf. for example the Haedui-Aedui ). However, whether the identity of the names also speaks for an actual identity with the Helvetians and what exactly this might have looked like remains unknown for the time being.

First clashes with the Roman Empire

«The Helvetii force the Romans under the yoke». 19th century history painting of the victory of the Helvetii under Divico over the Romans at Agen 107 BC By Charles Gleyre

The Helvetic tribes of the Tigurines and the Tougener entered with the Cimbri procession in 107 BC. In history. The first mention of the Helvetii by Poseidonius, which has been passed down through the geography of Strabo , is in this context. According to the natural history of the elder Pliny , a Helvetian with the name Helico worked as a craftsman in Rome and returned to the area north of the Alps with a dried fig, a grape, oil and wine, thus triggering the Celtic trains across the Alps. This story can be referred to the realm of legends.

Around 115 BC The Germanic peoples of the Cimbres and Ambrones moved from northern Germany and Denmark to the south. After their victory over the Romans at Noreia , they came around 111 BC. BC to what is now southern Germany, where they were joined by Celtic tribes, such as the Helvetian tribes of the Tigurines and Tougener. The extent to which the Tougeners and the Teutons, who are traditionally named with the Cimbri, were the same people is controversial. A possible explanation of the uninterpreted name would be the spelling of Τουτονοί to Τουγενοί in an early stage of the Strabo tradition , in which the Tougener, however, appear in the form Τωυγενοί . The allied Celtic and Germanic tribes invaded Gaul together , but made separate moves there. In 107 BC The Tigurines came to the area of ​​the peoples in what is now southern France. Under their general Divico , the Tigurines defeat a Roman army there near Agen on the Garonne . According to Caesar's tradition, the captured Romans were sent through under a yoke after the battle for humiliation. In Livy, however, this episode is not mentioned. At Orange, the Tiguriner struck again together with the other tribes in 105 BC. Another Roman army.

103 BC The tribes divided up to conquer the Po Valley. While the Teutons and Ambrones advanced west over Provence, the Cimbri and Tigurines moved east over the Brenner Pass. However, the Romans under Marius were able to defeat the Teutons and Ambrons in 102 BC. Near Aix-en-Provence and 101 BC. To repel and destroy the Cimbri at Vercellae . The Tigurines escaped annihilation and returned north with their prey. The Tigurines and the Helvetii remained in the collective memory of Rome as a strong and threatening Celtic tribe.

Caesar and the Helvetii

Julius Caesar and the Helvetic military leader Divico meet after the battle of the Saône. 19th century history painting by Karl Jauslin

Caesar's conquest of Gaul also ended the independence of the Helvetii, who became part of the Roman Empire . Cicero mentions that - probably as a result of the military defeat against Caesar - they concluded a foedus (alliance) with Rome.

Caesar gives a detailed account of Rome's struggles against the Helvetii at the beginning of the Gallic Wars at the beginning of his “ De Bello Gallico ”. The Helvetic nobleman Orgetorix is said to have planned and prepared an emigration to the Santonen area (today's Saintonge ). By the time the Helvetii set out, Orgetorix had already died under mysterious circumstances after being accused of striving for kingship, which in large parts of Gaul was then considered a death-worthy crime. After that, the Helvetii had completely left their settlement area, destroyed their settlements and fields, and wandered west with all able-bodied men, provisions and all other tribesmen to look for a new settlement area in Gaul and to subdue other Gaulish tribes. The Aedu and Allobrogans had asked Caesar and his legions for help because the Helvetii threatened them and devastated their country. Together with his Gallic allies, Caesar succeeded in defeating the Helvetii and their allies in 58 BC. To put to the decisive battle at Bibracte and to defeat their army.

Caesar shows that they had in the camp of the vanquished panels in Greek letters with results of a census found. The boards would have included a list of names and the number of those who had left their homeland, separated according to those who were capable of weapons and also according to children, women and old people. This would have resulted in a number of 263,000 Helvetians, plus 36,000  Tulingers , 14,000  Latobrigians , 23,000  Rauracers and 32,000  Boians . 92,000 men were fit for military service. After accepting the surrender of his enemies, Caesar left them life and freedom and ordered that the Helvetii, Tulingers and Latobrigers should return to their old settlement area and rebuild their destroyed settlements, while the Allobrogians had to supply them with grain at the beginning. After Caesar ordered a census to be carried out among those who returned home, the number was only 110,000. After that two thirds of the tribe would have fallen victim to the war.

However, recent research and archeology have never been able to confirm Caesar's statements. With the exception of one oppidum on Mont Vully, there were no traces of fire in the Helvetian settlement area that would indicate the destruction of the Helvetian settlements mentioned by Caesar. On the contrary, the Helvetii settlements and places of worship show unbroken continuity and vitality in the corresponding period. More recent (2007) excavations at the cult site of Mormont have confirmed this. Military historians have also calculated that the train of the Helvetii with 360,000 men and women as well as 8,500 ox-drawn carts, including the cattle they had carried with them - if you count on Caesar's information - would have been 130 kilometers long and would never have been in a column on a street at that time could have moved.

The "emigration" of the Helvetii is more likely to be seen as a campaign by smaller tribal groups, the reasons for which are unclear. Whether there were actually plans to settle in the Santonen area, as Caesar claims (Bell.Gall. 1,10), will probably never be clarified. In addition to the conceivable emigration of certain population groups, a mere foray through Gaul or - which is more unlikely in view of the Gallic tribal particularism and the route actually taken - a campaign against the Germanic tribes of Ariovistus should be considered. Caesar is, of course, careful to describe the movements of the Helvetii with as obvious parallels as possible to the devastating campaigns of 107 BC. And therefore points to the alleged disgrace of L. Cassius at Agen, which had to be atoned for (Bell.Gall. 1,12). In this sense, the person of Divico, who makes an appearance as an aged general with Caesar half a century after his victory over the Romans, acts like another set of Caesar propaganda with which he tries to justify the attack on the Helvetii as a late revenge ; whether the victor of Agen in 58 BC Was still alive or, if so, physically able to take part in such a train, seems extremely questionable.

The lack of Celtic finds and settlements in southwest Germany in the 1st century BC Chr. Is occasionally explained with the departure of the Helvetii in the Gallic War or during the Cimbrian campaigns. The term « Helvetier-Einöde » that emerged from this is controversial in research.

As a result of the defeat against Caesar, the militarily weakened Helvetians probably entered into an alliance ( foedus ) with the Romans that was not so unfavorable for them , and in the country of their allies they decided to secure two military colonies in Augst to protect the country from a possible invasion of the Germans and founded Nyon . Archaeological finds show that after the time of Caesar there was a real reflux of Celtic culture in Switzerland. Both circumstances, foedus and cultural bloom, are indications that neither tribal life nor population was reduced as drastically as Caesar's account suggests.

The incorporation of Helvetia into the Roman Empire

After the battles with the Romans at the time of Caesar, the literary tradition about the Helvetii broke off for a certain time. The Helvetii and Rauriks are said to have existed as early as 52 BC. Have participated again in the fight against Caesar under the direction of Vercingetorix . Their aid contingents were around 10,000 men strong, so one cannot speak of military exhaustion at that time. The constitutional position of the Helvetii after the defeat of the Gauls around Vercingetorix is ​​uncertain, especially whether the foedus continued to exist.

In any case, the Romans put in around 40 BC. Two military colonies on the territory of the Helvetii and the Rauriks. The Colonia Raurica ( Augst ) and the Colonia Iulia Equestris ( Nyon ) were probably there to protect the now Roman-ruled Gaul from Helvetic invasions. The location of the colonies blocks the simplest routes to Gaul via the Rhone Valley and the Sundgau. Both colonies only really developed under the rule of Augustus, the Colonia Raurica even had to be re-established under the name Colonia Augusta Raurica . Archaeological finds show that after the time of Caesar there was a real re-bloom of the Celtic culture in Switzerland - the Helvetii were anything but Romanized. The Celtic coin finds with the names of princes suggest an aristocratic organization of the tribes.

After the end of the Roman civil war, Augustus gradually left between 25 and 16 BC. Subdue the Alpine peoples and tribes in the Alpine campaigns so that the Alpine region was incorporated into the Roman Empire. In connection with these battles, the Romans relocated large units of troops to the Helvetii area, especially to what is now eastern Switzerland. The Roman occupation suddenly increased the influence of Roman culture on the Helvetii. Important fortified places were abandoned, others converted into Roman military stations such as Vindonissa ( Windisch ) or Basilea ( Basel ).

The oppidum on the Bois de Châtel was moved from the hill to the plain where the Gallo-Roman city of Aventicum ( Avenches ) arose. By the end of the reign of Augustus, the Helvetii were fully integrated into the Roman sphere of power as part of the province of Gallia Belgica and later the Germania superior and the Romanization of the population and the aristocracy began.

The Helvetian uprising in 68/69 AD as the last conflict between Romans and Helvetians

The self-government of the Helvetii continued under Roman rule. The people's community ( civitas ) was further divided into four sub-tribes ( pagi ). The civitas regulated the tax system autonomously and provided a militia that was responsible for border protection and maintaining internal security.

The Helvetic independence ended in the course of events after the death of Nero in 68 AD. The Helvetians supported the new Emperor Galba and therefore came into conflict with the Roman troops on their territory, because they supported the general Vitellius , who was also striving for empire . When Galba was assassinated in Rome in AD 69 and Otho was installed as emperor in his place, the Roman legions in Germania were preparing for a procession to Rome to bring their candidate to the throne. In this context, there was an armed clash between Swiss groups and the Legio XXI Rapax from Vindonissa (Windisch). As a reaction, the Roman general Aulus Caecina Alienus , who had just arrived in Helvetia with the Upper Germanic army, cracked down on it. The Swiss settlements in Aargau were looted and destroyed. As the Helvetii resisted, thousands of them were killed or sold as slaves under martial law. Finally the Roman troops occupied the city of Aventicum, which had become the capital of the Helvetian civitas , which ended the uprising. Aventicum was then converted into a Roman colony under the name Colonia Pia Flavia Constans Emerita Helvetiorum Foederata . After the riots, the 21st Legion in Vindonissa was replaced by the Legio XI Claudia .

The "end" of the Helvetii

After the uprising of 68/69 AD, there were no more military conflicts between the Romans and the Helvetians. The Helvetian self-government no longer existed and the Helvetii generally did not have Roman citizenship. It was only given to individuals as an award. It was not until the year 212 AD that the locals were legally equated with the Roman colonists. The Helvetii were strongly Romanised at this time, but the Celtic colloquial language, Celtic deities and customs were preserved. From west to east there was a strong gap in the strength of Romanization.

Towards the end of Roman rule in what is now Switzerland, there was a final Celtic renaissance. Nevertheless, the Helvetians did not succeed in establishing their own state after the withdrawal of the Roman troops in AD 401. Old Celtic Oppida were re-fortified and settled again, but the Romanized Helvetii could not prevent the Alemanni from immigrating to the central and eastern plateau. The old settlements were able to assert themselves as linguistic islands for a while, but the Helvetians were assimilated by the immigrants in the long term, at least in the not strongly Romanized areas. The Romanesque element was able to assert itself in western Switzerland and the Alpine region.

Nevertheless, Celtic influences remain in Switzerland to this day. The greater part of the rivers and the older cities of Switzerland have Celtic names. Field and land names also have Celtic sprinkles. For example, the name of the central Swiss canton of Uri comes from the Celtic ure (bull).

civilization

Archaeological studies in particular provide indications of the Helvetic civilization. Because the experts exchange information across borders and because numerous other sciences provide valuable clues, ever more reliable knowledge can be obtained. Some of them are also supported by historical sources.

Settlements

The Celtic and Rhaetian colonization of today's Switzerland

The grave finds from the La Tène period indicate that the Swiss plateau between Lausanne and Winterthur was inhabited at that time. The focus was on the southern foot of the Jura in the region of Lake Neuchâtel and Lake Biel as far as Basel, in the Aare Valley between Thun and Bern, in the area between Limmat or Lake Zurich and Reuss. In the Alps, the Valais was evidently relatively densely populated, in Ticino the area around Bellinzona and Lugano.

Settlements were primarily built on bodies of water (transport routes). Ideally, a bend in the river ( e.g. Bern Engehalbinsel , Vindonissa, Altenburg-Rheinau ) or a hill (as in Geneva, Mont Vully , Basel Münsterhügel, Zurich-Lindenhof ) offered protection and overview.

Hardly any traces have been preserved of Swiss buildings. This is likely to be related to the continuity of the settlement: Helvetic buildings were supplemented and replaced by Roman ones, these in turn by medieval ones. In Zurich, based on the evaluation of the excavations around the Lindenhof from the end of the 1990s, evidence of a Celtic settlement could be provided. A V-shaped ditch could be made out and post construction houses with fireplaces were exposed. From around 40 BC A house was built in a newer construction. Other innovations can also be observed from this time: the orientation of the houses changed, there was a fireplace in a large boulder with a cavity, storage vessels and sprouted spelled grains could indicate the production of beer. Excavations in 2007 discovered various pits that could have been used for storage. In addition, iron slag was found on the northwest slope of the Lindenhof as evidence of metalworking.

In Vindonissa, remains of wooden buildings from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC were found during excavations. Found. Remnants of everyday objects and weapons are more common, in some places walls and trenches of fortifications, which allow conclusions to be drawn about the settlement by Helvetii. According to Caesar, there were more than 400 Helvetic vici (villages) and a dozen oppida. 58 BC 263,000 Helvetians moved to Bibracte .

Fortified settlements

Important trading venues were also secured. Such a settlement fortified with ramparts and moats is called an oppidum . Some of these oppida grew into city-like centers, while others served more as refuge. The wall of Sermuz was partially reconstructed according to the description of Caesar.

These fortifications were located in strategically important locations, often on prominent hills ( Mont Terri , Sissach , Mont Vully , Zurich-Uetliberg ), at geographical bottlenecks ( La Tène , Yverdon ), in triangular estuaries (Geneva, Basel) or in river loops (Bern-Engeh peninsula ). The oppidum on the Lindenhof in Zurich used a combination of these features (excavations from 1999 and 2004 on Rennweg).

Proven and suspected Celtic oppida in Switzerland

Almost all of the Celtic Oppida in what is now Switzerland were on or near the then navigable rivers. The oppida did not all exist at the same time. The Celtic names of the places are not known. At most one can infer the Celtic place names from the Latin place names.

Reconstruction of a section of the Sermuz wall

Economic basics

raw materials

In the Alpine region and in the northern Jura there are numerous deposits of various iron ores and also of copper. Presumably the iron ores were systematically mined and smelted, because the production of tools, utensils and weapons required large amounts of pig iron. However, archaeological traces of ore mining and smelting are largely missing. Finds of pig iron ingots are more common. In this form, the material could be better transported to the consumers. Finds come from Zurich, for example: bars were discovered on the western edge of the Lindenhof . A bundle of 20 rod-shaped iron bars was dredged from the Rathausbrücke in Zurich in 1866: the bars were 50 cm long and weighed 770 to 850 g. The remains of a blacksmith's shop were found in the Rheinau oppidum .

Many streams and rivers in Switzerland carry gold that can be washed . In ancient sources the Helvetii are described several times as "rich in gold". This is also the case with Poseidonios , who lived around 100 BC. Lived and traveled to the areas he described. Diodorus describes the panning for gold very precisely.

The Helvetii were apparently able to extract gold in large quantities and use it to produce valuable jewelry or gold coins.

Crafts and handicrafts

Bronze was also used as a jewelry material. Instead of individual pieces, series were increasingly being produced, as shown by the fifty more rationally produced bronze brooches from the Engeh peninsula in Bern. Around 2000 comparable fibulae have been found in Central Europe.

Iron weapons were common, and they are often decorated with ornaments. Although it is more difficult to decorate iron objects than bronze objects, Swiss artisans managed to decorate lance tips and sword scabbards.

All essential working techniques in gold processing , which are still used today, were known in Celtic times and developed to great perfection: it was forged, driven, chiseled, soldered and granulated, silver jewelry could be gilded.

Late Celtic ceramics from Rennweg 5

Glass jewelry : middle of the 3rd century BC A new fashion emerged: women wear glass bracelets in bright colors. These rings are so artfully made that it is still not entirely clear how they were made. A clear focus of such finds can be seen in the Central Plateau and in the Bern region. However, the knowledge of the production was increasingly lost and in Roman times no one could make such jewelry any more.

Obviously, in the last two centuries before the turn of the era, the division of labor and specialization also increasingly prevailed in the manufacture of pottery. Simpler objects for everyday use were still made by themselves; they were thicker-walled than those produced on the potter's wheel. In the relatively large settlement near Sissach (Basel-Land), around and after 110 BC there was A real potters' quarters: a dozen kilns stood close to each other, refuse and misfires were found in large numbers. Similar pottery furnaces were also found at the Basel gas factory. Finds show that the crockery from such pottery was of high quality and elegant, and was often painted after the fire.

trade

Lively trade relations can be assumed on the basis of the finds: pieces of jewelry from Northern Italy, from Etruria, even of Carthaginian origin, testify to the exchange of goods over great distances. Since the 2nd century BC BC wine was also transported from the south to the north side of the Alps, as evidenced by many amphorae finds. The custom of wine consumption came from Italy to the Alpine region and was apparently adopted by the local population. The waters were used as transport routes whenever possible.

In addition to jewelry and wine, goods were also iron bars and people. Diodorus mentions that a jug of wine was worth a slave's. Iron handcuffs have been found in various places, for example in the Basel gas factory, in La Tène and in Bern. Prisoners of war and presumably also own people from the lowest social classes were traded as slaves. With the custom of drinking wine, suitable vessels also came to the Helvetians: jugs with handles, drinking bowls and mugs made of thin-walled material (clay or metal), as they were known from the Po Valley and even more southern regions. Clay oil lamps were also found, suggesting that oil was also imported. Apparently, eating habits from the south were also adopted: amphorae for olive oil from Spain were found in Geneva, as was Garum , a versatile spice from the Mediterranean region.

Cultural

Corporate structure

Reliable information about the structure of society can be found in Roman texts. People from the "aristocratic" class were provided with valuable grave goods from which conclusions can be drawn about lifestyle, clothing, trade relations and culture. A small class of nobles (called nobiles in the sources) asserted their claim to power based on their origin and family tree. In any case, a young man of this shift had to be fit for war in order to keep his status. A rise in the social hierarchy was basically possible: Those who distinguished themselves through assertiveness and skill could also gain power and influence. Orgetorix , who, according to Julius Caesar, is by far the most distinguished and richest man of his time is known by name as a representative of these nobles .

Julius Caesar also reports of druids . He describes them as wise men who are well versed in many things . They were exempt from military service and taxes; they worked as priests, judges and scholars. Archaeological traces that indicate these functions have not yet been secured.

At the other end of the social hierarchy stood the common people. These people were dependent on the higher-ups and sometimes lived in slave-like relationships with them. Presumably they were often abducted as spoils of war. They have hardly left any traces that can be archaeologically evaluated, nor are they specifically mentioned in texts.

Writing and language

From approx. 500 BC Chr. Inscriptions on stones accumulate in the region of Lugano and Como ; these are written in a fully developed Celtic language with its own writing system. The texts found are largely limited to names. Julius Caesar reports on inventories in the Greek language and - after the battle of Bibracte - on writing tablets made of wax and pencils, as were customary in Rome.

Greek models of inscriptions are imitated on coins, but often so badly that one has to assume that the engraver did not know the characters. On an iron sword, which was excavated in the Alte Zihl near Port, a stamp, similar to a coat of arms, and a name in clear Greek letters can be seen. The sword is dated to 110 BC. Dated.

Means of payment

Gold coin of the Sequani from pre-Roman times

For a long time barter was carried out on the north side of the Alps. Coins as a means of payment were common south of the Alps. Little by little the Celts imitated Roman coins. In addition to silver and gold coins, the so-called Sequaner type, made from bronze with a strong addition of lead , was particularly popular.

Finds from Bern Engehpeninsel and Sion show that women carried their cash with them, in a leather pouch on their belt or in a tin made of sheet bronze.

Coin production was probably also a privilege. There are finds from the region of Mont Vully and Avenches that suggest embossing workshops. The smallest common coins, the potins , were cast.

Lumps of melted potin coins interspersed with charcoal were found in 1890 in the vicinity of the oppidum Lindenhof and the Gallo-Roman settlement Turicum in Zurich. The heaviest lump of 59.2 kg should contain around 18,000 coins. Two types of coins can be distinguished in this find: Potin coins of the so-called Zurich type , which can be attributed to native Helvetians, and potin coins from the Sequan people living in Eastern Gaul. At that time, the site was at least 50 m from today's lakeshore in Lake Zurich near the lakeside settlement of Alpenquai . The combination of water, fire and coins indicates a ritual immersion, possibly a sanctuary. The discovery of so-called “ potted plates” also refers to a mint in the city on the Limmat.

In 2012 around 300 scattered silver coins were found in Füllinsdorf , which are a clear indication of supra-regional contacts at that time.

Religion and places of worship

Names and functions of Celtic deities are only known from Roman tradition. Three oak statues, created around 100 BC. BC, may have depicted deities. At least this is indicated by coin additions. This and a Celtic stone sculpture were recovered from the Lake Geneva basin.

The connection between religion and war is clear. Weapons and booty were sacrificed to the gods, with the objects previously rendered unusable. Apparently there was such a shrine in Bern Tiefenau. A considerable number of iron objects were found, for the removal of which a small wagon had to be used: swords and lances made of iron, metal remains of chariots, sword scabbards, shields and chain mail. Many of these objects have apparently come into contact with fire - a further indication of a sacred act. Coins and 50 iron bars were also consecrated and sacrificed there.

Weapons were found particularly frequently in rivers and lakes. The most famous site is La Tène at the lower end of Lake Neuchâtel. Over 2500 objects were found on the river bed and in excavations. About a third of these are weapons that have also been rendered unusable. In addition, there are many ironing scissors and razors, which were sacrificed together, as well as around 400 brooches made of iron. All of these items point to a male society, women's jewelry rarely occurs. Remnants of bridge piers suggest that the objects may have been attached to the bridge itself. From today's point of view, the numerous human skeletal parts and skeletons, one of which is said to have had a rope around its neck, are horrible. People as offerings?

In Cornaux , three kilometers downstream from La Tène, there is another cult site, which was used about a hundred years later. The remains of at least nineteen people have been found there. And at the outflow of Lake Biel, near Port , around 120 swords and lances were recovered from the river bed. All of these finds were made in connection with the correction of the Jura waters .

At the lakeside settlement of Grosser Hafner , not far from the current outflow of the Limmat from Lake Zurich or where the Potinz lumps were found , a wooden round temple from the reign of Emperor Hadrian has been archaeologically proven. The majority of the around 90 coins probably belong to a previously unrecognized predecessor of the island sanctuary, which was dendrochronologically dated to the year 122 AD .

Burnt offerings were also a way of communicating with the gods. Two such sacrificial sites are located opposite each other in the Rhine Valley: The Ochsenberg near Wartau (SG). and the Gutenberg near Balzers (FL). Among other things, seven bronze votive figures were found there, along with jewelry. The remains of animal sacrifices and metal offerings were found on the Ochsenberg. There were parts of swords, lance tips and parts of bronze helmets. In addition, women's jewelry was also found here.

Death and ideas of the afterlife

According to their main doctrine, the soul is not mortal, but passes from one body to another after death. They also believe that this doctrine encourages bravery, as one loses the fear of death.

Originally, burial was common; it is assumed that not all dead were given a grave, but that this required a certain social position. In the course of time, ideas about the afterlife have probably changed, as the deceased were rarely given rich jewelry or weapons. Instead, food and money are increasingly chosen as grave goods, and children's graves are also more common. Increasingly, a " Charon penny " is placed in the mouth of the dead , a custom that has been adopted from Greek and Roman traditions. It is striking that women have always been equipped in this way for their final journey.

Middle of the 2nd century BC First cremations of the dead can be proven. This custom spread increasingly. The urn graves were also precisely dug and marked on the surface with a stele or a post. Archaeological finds of urn graves are rare because they are difficult to distinguish from the surrounding soil.

"Ordinary" dead were treated with little respect for our terms. Their remains can be found in pits in the earth, in trenches or in abandoned wells, mixed with rubble and rubbish from the settlement. Some human bones show traces of being nibbled by animals. After all, comparable customs are also known from ancient Rome.

Well-known Helvetians

  • Helico was a fabulous craftsman who is said to have lived in Rome.
  • Divico was a leader of the Tigurines.
  • Orgetorix († 60 BC) was a Swiss prince
  • Verucloetius and Nammeius were two Helvetic nobles who negotiated with Julius Caesar.
  • Vatico gave around 50 BC Coins found in the area of ​​Aventicum. Maybe he was a Swiss prince.
  • Ninno is also mentioned on coins and may have been a prince as well.

See also

literature

  • Margrit Balmer, Luisa Bertolaccini: Zurich in the late Latène and early imperial periods: from the Celtic oppidum to the Roman vicus turicum . Building Construction Department of the City of Zurich, Office for Urban Development, Urban Archeology, Zurich 2009, ISBN 978-3-905681-37-6 .
  • Andres Furger-Gunti: The Helvetians: Cultural history of a Celtic people . Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zurich 1984, ISBN 3-85823-071-5 .
  • Andreas Furger, Felix Müller: Gold of the Helvetii. Celtic treasures from Switzerland . Switzerland. National Museum, Zurich 1991, DNB 920792073 .
  • Andrea Hagendorn: In the early days of Vindonissa. (= Publications of the Pro Vindonissa Society. Volume 18). Brugg 2003, ISBN 3-9521540-4-0 .
  • Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher : The Celts in Switzerland . Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8062-1759-9 .
  • Felix Staehelin : Switzerland in Roman times. 3., rework. and exp. Edition. Schwabe, Basel 1948, DNB 57649822X .
  • Gerold Walser : Bellum Helveticum: Studies at the beginning of the Caesarian conquest of Gaul . (= Historia. Individual writings 118). Steiner, Stuttgart 1998, ISBN 3-515-07248-9 .
  • Felix Müller et al. (Ed.): Switzerland from the Palaeolithic to the early Middle Ages. Part 4: Iron Age. Verlag Swiss Society for Prehistory and Early History, Basel 1999, ISBN 3-908006-53-8 .

Web links

Wiktionary: Helvetier  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Felix Staehelin: Switzerland in Roman times. Schwabe, Basel 1948, p. 59.
  2. ↑ Gerhard Bund / Peter Rückert: On the Iron Age settlement between the Main and Tauber in: Wertheimer Jahrbuch 1991/92 (Ed .: Historischer Verein / Staatsarchiv Wertheim ), Verlag des Historisches Verein Wertheim eV 1992, p. 17.
  3. ↑ In note 26 at Bund / Rückert: Dieter Timpe : The settlement conditions of Main Franconia in the Caesar-Augustan period according to the literary sources in: Christian Pescheck (Ed.): The Germanic soil finds of the Roman Empire in Main Franconia , vol. 1, Munich 1987, Pp. 119-129.
  4. ↑ Geogr. II 11.6
  5. ↑ Switzerland from the Paleolithic to the Early Middle Ages. Part 4: Iron Age. Verlag Swiss Society for Prehistory and Early History, Basel 1999, ISBN 3-908006-53-8 , p. 32.
  6. ↑ Str. 4.1.8, 7.2.2.
  7. ^ L. Cassius cos. a Tigurinis Gallis, pago Helvetiorum, qui a civitate secesserant, in finibus Nitiobrogum cum exercitu caesus est. Milites, qui ex ea caede superaverant, obsidibus datis et dimidia rerum omnium parte, ut incolumes dimitterentur, cum hostibus pacti sunt. Livius, Periochae 61-65, LXV.
  8. ↑ Andres Furger-Gunti: The Helvetians: Cultural History of a Celtic People. Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zurich 1984, ISBN 3-85823-071-5 , pp. 75-77.
  9. ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: De Bello Gallico. I, p. 29.
  10. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8062-1759-9 , p. 111ff.
  11. ↑ M.Balmer, M. Nick, K. Hunger: The late Latène period findings and finds from the Rennweg 35 excavation in Zurich. Antiqua 47, undated
  12. ↑ Andrea Hagendorn: In the early days of Vindonissa. Brugg 2003, ISBN 3-9521540-4-0 , pp. 17-27.
  13. ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: De Bello Gallico. I, 5.2
  14. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8062-1759-9 , p. 117.
  15. ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: De Bello Gallico. VII, p. 23.
  16. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8062-1759-9 , pp. 117-124.
  17. ↑ After Furger-Gunti 1984, pp. 50–58.
  18. ↑ Basel-Münsterhügel ( Memento of the original from April 26, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. on archaeologie.bs.ch @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.archaeologie.bs.ch
  19. ^ Ernst H. Berninger, Paul-Louis Pelet: Eisen .. In: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz ., Accessed on April 6, 2014.
  20. ^ Office of the City of Zurich: Celts in Zurich stadt-zuerich.ch
  21. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 135.
  22. ↑ Felix Müller in: Gold of the Helvetii. Celtic treasures from Switzerland. P. 74.Switzerland. State Museum, 1991.
  23. ↑ History of the Seeland From prehistoric times to the present: Celts and Romans mediatime.ch
  24. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 136.
  25. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, pp. 134/135.
  26. ↑ Christoph Jäggi in: Gold of the Helvetii. Celtic treasures from Switzerland. Edited by Switzerland. Landesmuseum, 1991, p. 41.
  27. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 131ff.
  28. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 137.
  29. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 138.
  30. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 138.
  31. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 115.
  32. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 139.
  33. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 139.
  34. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 74.
  35. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 140.
  36. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 127.
  37. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 127.
  38. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, pp. 16/17.
  39. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 125.
  40. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 125.
  41. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 126.
  42. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 130.
  43. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 128.
  44. ↑ Michael Nick: One and a half quintals of Celtic change - New research on the "potin lump" of Zurich. Swiss Numismatic Rundschau 83, 2004, pp. 97–117.
  45. ↑ Information sheet on Celtic Money in Zurich: The spectacular “Potin Lump” . Office for Urban Development of the City of Zurich, Urban Archeology (Ed.). Zurich, October 2007.
  46. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 122.
  47. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 143ff.
  48. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 146.
  49. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 147.
  50. ↑ Beat Eberschweiler: Remnants of skulls, kopecks and radar: a variety of tasks for the Zurich diving team IV. In: NAU. 8/2001. Office for Urban Development of the City of Zurich, Monument Preservation and Archeology Underwater Archeology / Laboratory for Dendrochronology (Ed.). Zurich 2001.
  51. ↑ St.Martinsberg or Ochsenberg: Today pasture - yesterday settlement area. ( Memento of the original from March 5, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. on: sg.ch @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sg.ch
  52. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, pp. 147-49.
  53. ↑ Julius Caesar, Bellum Gallicum VI, 14, quoted in: Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: Die Kelten in der Schweiz. Stuttgart 2004, p. 101.
  54. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 141.
  55. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 115.
  56. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 141.
  57. ^ Felix Müller, Geneviève Lüscher: The Celts in Switzerland. Stuttgart 2004, p. 142.
  58. ↑ Felix Müller et al. (Ed.): Switzerland from the Palaeolithic to the early Middle Ages. Volume IV: Iron Age. Basel 1999, ISBN 3-908006-53-8 .