Bibracte
Coordinates: 46 ° 55 ′ 40 ″ N , 4 ° 2 ′ 15 ″ E
Bibracte was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the Haedu ( Aedui ) from the end of the second century BC. Until the end of the first century BC BC 58 BC Bibracte was the scene of the battle of Bibracte .
The oppidum was the center of power for the Haedu aristocracy and also an important place for handicrafts and trade: mines, smiths and mints crowded an area of 135 hectares.
The village is located in the commune of Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray ( Saône-et-Loire department ) in the Morvan on the summit of Mont Beuvray, in the catchment area of the Saône , Yonne , Seine and Loire rivers . The Mont Beuvray (822 meters) consists of three peaks: Theurot de la Wivre, Theurot de la Roche and the highest point Porrey. In the middle of a fortified oppidum, a museum provides information about the Celtic civilization and life in this city of five to ten thousand inhabitants.
etymology
One can only speculate about the origin of the word Bibracte. It can be derived from the Celtic * bibro- or * bebro- (German: beaver) with the suffix -akti "several" (Irish, Kymrisch -aktā ) or from the Latin biffractus (double attached). The last version is unsafe. It was discovered that Bibracte was surrounded by two fortress walls; Measurements showed, however, that the outer wall is older than the inner one, for the construction of which stones from the old structure were safely reused. It is therefore not certain that Bibracte had two walls at the same time. Furthermore, these phonetics do not correspond to the place name Beuvray: Since the Latin double consonant / fr / was preserved in French, the Latin word should have resulted in "Beffray". The French double consonant / vr / was most likely derived from / br / or / pr /.
Another explanation is three inscriptions dedicated to the goddess Bibracte. They were found in Autun in the 17th century . Two inscriptions carved in stone have disappeared; the authenticity of the third inscription, an engraving on a brass medallion, is doubted. Indeed, earlier arguments about the location of Bibracte may have led certain scholars of the period to fabricate forgeries to prove the location of the Haedu oppidum in the city of Autun (the former Augustodunum). Indeed, in the first century this city was the capital of the Haedu .
The discovery of Bibracte
The first historical mention of Bibracte is in Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War in 58 BC. Chr .; After his victory over the Helvetii , Gaius Julius Caesar received the leaders of the Gallic tribes in Bibracte, who - according to his statements - asked him to take action against Ariovistus .
Caesar wrote another time in 52 BC. BC via Bibracte: In June the leader of the uprising against Caesar, Vercingetorix , went to Bibracte at the request of the Haeduer to “come to an understanding with them about the conduct of the war”. This sentence makes it clear that after joining the general uprising, the Haedu wanted to take the lead. But the warriors chose Vercingetorix, who was confirmed in Bibracte in his command. Caesar came 52 BC. After his victory in Alesia to Bibracte, to set up his winter quarters there.
Bibracte was later not mentioned. At the time of the emperor Augustus , inscriptions say that the capital of the Haedu was named Augustodunum (the fortress of Augustus), the origin of the name of today's Autun.
From the 16th century on, scientists, aristocrats and clergy took an interest in the past of their homeland, which led to the question of where Bibracte was. Two theses faced each other. One wanted to locate Bibracte in Autun, the later Gallo-Roman city. The other thesis placed the city on the slopes of Beuvrect or Bevrect, today's Mont Beuvray. This thesis was based mainly on three arguments: First, there is a relationship between the names Bibracte and Beuvrect. In addition, this thesis was based on a tradition handed down from medieval chronicles that localized the city in Beuvrect. The tradition was confirmed by an annual mass on the first Wednesday, Thursday and Friday of May, which is already reported in texts from the 13th century. The discoveries of pottery, coins and the observations of the parish priest of Saint-Léger-sous-Beuvray in 1725 also led in this direction.
However, the thesis regarding Autun received the most approval at the beginning. One had to wait for the research of Jacques Gabriel Bulliot in the 19th century until the pendulum swung in favor of Mont Beuvray. From 1851 Bulliot did research on Mont Beuvray. At the summit of Beuvray, near the Saint Martin chapel, he discovered what he believed was the rampart of a Roman camp (in fact it was a place of worship ). He documented it and, contrary to the unanimous opinion of the Société éduenne, considered locating Bibracte on the Beuvray and not in Autun. The publication of his Essai sur le système défensif des Romains dans le pays éduen entre la Saône et la Loire (essay on the defense system of the Romans in the Haeduer land between Saône and Loire) brought him only a weary smile from the members of the Société d'archéologie a.
The interest of the Emperor Napoléon III. at the battles of the Gallic War accelerated research. Bulliot received a visit from an officer named Stoffel , who had been commissioned by the emperor to carry out excavations on the victory of the Romans against the Helvetii . Bulliot gave him his opinion on the location of Bibracte. The officer paid him little attention, but gave another member of the Société éduenne, Xavier Garenne, the task of carrying out test excavations on the Beuvray. At the same time, the owner of the property, the Viscount of Aboville, did his own research and showed it to the Archbishop of Reims, who was also a member of the Société éduenne and a friend of Bulliot. The archbishop's interest aroused so much by the excavations that he reported it to the emperor. 1867 commissioned Napoléon III. Bulliot with research on the Beuvray and granted him the necessary funds.
Bulliot (1817–1902) began digging on the mountain in 1867 and removed all doubts about the location of Bibracte. His nephew Joseph Déchelette continued the work until 1907 and compared Bibracte with other European places such as Stradonice in Bohemia, Manching in Germany and Velem-Szentvid in Hungary, which in his opinion show the unity of the Celtic world and the Oppida civilization.
The history of the oppidum
Chronology of the settlement of Beuvray
The excavations at the Porte du Rebout brought to light five works, the oldest of which showed the presence of people on Mont Beuvray from the Neolithic . However, dating has shown that the oppidum did not exist before the end of the 2nd century BC. Was founded. On a surface of 200 hectares, it was protected by the outer ramparts. Subsequently, for unknown reasons, a second, inner fortification wall was built.
The Haedu received the status of a friend of the Roman people, probably there were contacts with Roman merchants even before the conquest of Gaul by Caesar. The Haedu prince Diviciacus visited Rome in 61 BC. Where he u. a. with Cicero joined connection.
The privileged status of the Haeduer meant that Bibracte hardly suffered from the conquest of Gaul by Caesar. 58 BC BC, near Montmort, Caesar's armies triumphed in the battle of Bibracte over the Helvetii and their allies ( Tulinger , Latobriger , Rauriker , Boier , Verbigener ). According to Caesar's probably exaggerated information (De bello Gallico, 1, 29), 368,000 people, including 92,000 men of military age, belonged to the Helvetians and their companions (except the Verbigenes). After the battle, 110,000 survivors were counted. The losses, including among civilians, would have been enormous.
52 BC The Aedu fell away from Caesar and joined the uprising of Vercingetorix , who received supreme command of the Gallic armies in Bibracte from an assembly of the Gallic people. Nevertheless, Caesar spared the city after his victory in Alesia . He settled here in the winter of 52/51 to write his Commentarii de Bello Gallico. These comments reveal, among other things, the names of some high-ranking personalities of the Haedu aristocracy such as Dumnorix , Vergobret der Haeduer, and his brother Diviciacus , a druid . Dumnorix was Caesar's bitter and consistent enemy from the start, while Diviciacus was likely Caesar's best friend and ally in Gaul. Caesar also mentions Liscus (de bello Gallico 1, 16-18, four times), who lived in 58 BC. Vergobret was (de bello Gallico 1, 16, 5: in his… Lisco, qui summo magistratui praeerat, quem vergobretum appellant Haedui; i.e. among these… Liscus, who held the highest office, which the Haeduer call Vergobret).
In the 7th book of the "Gallic War", the year 52 BC. Chr., Other Haedu princes are mentioned: Convictolitalis, Cotus and his brother Valetiacus, Eporedorix , Viridomarus and Litaviccus. Convictolitavis, a respected and brilliant young man (Book 7, 32, 4: Convictolitavem, florentem et inlustrem adulescentem) and Cotus, from a very old family, personally very powerful and with great relatives (Book 7, 32, 4: Cotum, antiquissima familia natum atque ipsum hominem summae potentiae et magnae cognationis) were both elected to a very high office, not named by Caesar (Book 7, 32, 3), which brought the community of the Haeduer into great distress. That is why leading personalities of the Haedu came to Caesar to ask him for help (Book 7, 32, 2: legati ad eum principes Haeduorum veniunt oratum, ut maxime necessario tempore civitati subveniat - "Princes of the Haedu came to him as ambassadors, for him to ask that he come to the aid of the people on an extremely critical occasion "). Caesar made the decision that Cotus had to resign his office and Convictolitavis had to keep it (Book 7, 33, 4: Cotum imperium deponere coegit, Convictolitavem, qui per sacerdotes more civitatis intermissis magistratibus esset creatus, potestatem obtinere iussit - "he forced Cotus to power to resign, the convictolitalis, who was ordered by the priests according to the custom of the people, since the offices were temporarily not occupied, to retain power "). Caesar also mentions Valetiacus, the brother of the above-mentioned Cotus (Book 7, 32, 4: Cotum…, cuius frater Valeticus proximo anno eundem magistratum gesserit. "Cotus ... whose brother Valeticus held the same office last year"). Litaviccus was at the head of a group of young Haedu who wanted to make common cause with Vercingetorix; H. wanted to take part in the revolt of all Gauls against Caesar. His brothers were also among them. (Book 7, 37, 1) The city reached its heyday in the decades after the war. The geographer Strabo , who wrote a generation after Caesar, described Bibracte as a fortified place of the Haeduer.
About 15 BC In AD, under the rule of Augustus , Autun (Augustodunum) was founded 25 kilometers from Bibracte . Bibracte was gradually abandoned by its inhabitants. However, the cults continued to be practiced in the temples and by the fountains, and the aristocratic houses continued to be maintained. Mainly two hypotheses are put forward for the gradual abandonment of the city in a few decades: The emigration can be due to economic reasons or a voluntary integration into the Roman culture; a part of the Haedu upper class, which was already pre-Roman during the Gallic War, certainly registered the strategic importance of the new city, which was located on the main traffic routes. In addition, they wanted to appropriate the Roman city model of cities in the plain, in contrast to a more traditional part of the population who stayed in the old place for some time.
From texts from the 13th century we know of a mass on every first Wednesday in May. In the 15th and 16th centuries there was a Minorite monastery on the Beuvray.
Influence and power of the oppidum
Gabriel de Mortillet created the “type beuvraisien” in his classification of the ancient peoples. But that term has disappeared these days. Caesar's comments on the Gallic War, which emphasize the numerous alliances between the Haedu and the neighboring peoples, tell of the power of the Haedu capital. Caesar also mentions the wars of the Haedu against the Arverni and Sequani for dominance over a large part of Gaul. This mention is not unimportant, since Rome has been around since at least the second century BC. Was the ally of the Haedu, "their blood brothers". They maintained trade connections and war alliances: In the second century, Rome destroyed an army of the Arverni and thus saved the Haeduer. 58 BC Caesar responded to the Haeduer's call for help against the invasion of the Helvetii in Gaul, which led to the Gallic War.
Despite this powerful alliance with Rome , the Aedu were part of a union of Celtic tribes:
The influence of this covenant extended to a large part of Gaul .
Archaeologists estimate the population of Beuvray in its heyday to be between 5,000 and 10,000.
trade
In his “Histoire de la Gaulle” (The History of Gaul), the historian Camille Jullian wrote these lines about the Haeduer: “Bibracte, j'en suis sûr, fut le point de départ et le plus sûr garant de leur puissance. Autour de Bibracte circulaient des très bonnes routes, unissant les trois plus grands bassins de France. ”(Bibracte, I am sure, was your starting point and the surest guarantor of your power. There were very good roads around Bibracte, including the three largest river valleys United France.). The importance of Bibractes becomes clear when you bear in mind that the rivers were the fastest communication routes of this era: the Roman goods came via the Rhone and then the Saône, the Loire or the Allier . That is why the goods passed through Haedu before they hit the Loire or the Seine. The Haeduer placed themselves on an important trading node between the Celtic and the Roman world: Mont Beuvray dominates the Loire Valley to the west and the Saône valley to the east. The Haedu promised the spread of Roman goods in Gaul from the second century BC. They enabled their allied Gallic tribes to profit from their trade with Rome and with the Greek colonies such as Massilia . This trade is evidenced by the large quantities of amphorae and ceramics that came from Italy and were found in trash ditches and tiled floors of houses.
In addition, the Haeduer created a customs system that taxed the products that came through their country. This increased their wealth, as Caesar seems to testify: “It was Dumnorix himself, of the utmost audacity, of great popularity with the lower folk because of his generosity and eager for innovations (thinking of overthrowing). For several years he bought (leased) the customs duties and all other income of the Haedu for a low price, because if he offered, no one would dare to offer against it. ”Furthermore, the Haedu and Sequaner waged war for control of the Arar ( today Saône ), because whoever controlled the river could tax all Roman and Celtic products that were brought to the north of the continent via the river route.
politics
From the form of government of the Haeduer around the middle of the 1st century BC. We know from scattered notes in Caesar's commentaries on the Gallic War. At the head of the Haedu state was a senate in which only one member from each aristocratic family could sit. What is now called the executive was carried out by the Vergobret ; this supreme magistrate held his office for a year. During this time he was forbidden to leave the tribal area so that he could not command the army beyond the borders. This requirement, along with the provision that each family could only have one vote in the Senate, should certainly prevent an individual or his family from seizing the reins of power. The Vergobret was elected publicly by a council headed by the Druids . The vergobret seemed the jurisdiction to exercise, because Caesar reports he had "the right of life and death of his fellow citizens." Finally, it is believed that the Vergobret was responsible for the administration of the area. How the administration was carried out, Caesar reports in a treatise on druids: “And they consider it a sin (literally: not right) to write it down (literally: to entrust the letter), while they are in usually for (all) other things, for government and private records, use the Greek script. ”No excavation has so far found such records, because the wooden tablets coated with wax are not durable for long.
It is also known that the druids held high positions, since the druid Diviciacus came to Rome to ask for help against the Germanic invasion led by Ariovistus , which the Sequani paid for. After the death of his brother Dumnorix , he also commanded the Haedu cavalry during the Gallic War. So it can be assumed that the druids also held high positions in war.
Archaeological research on Mont Beuvray
From 1865 to 1895, Jacques Gabriel Bulliot, financed by Napoleon III. , with the excavations. He focused on the artisan district around the Porte du Rebout.
As a passionate historian, the emperor set up major excavation campaigns to find the sites of the Gallic War for his "Histoire de Jules César". The modest "Hôtel des Gaules" that housed the researcher on the excavation site has since been rebuilt. Joseph Déchelette, Bulliot's nephew, took over his work from 1895 to 1907. He was killed during the First World War , after which the excavations were forgotten.
In 1984 François Mitterrand's drive resumed and a European excavation program was launched. A "Center archéologique européen du Mont Beuvray", founded in 1989, brings together the excavation site, the museum and the research center in Glux-en-Glenne. Several French and foreign teams work together on the excavations. The excavations focus in particular on the Gallic quarter near the Porte du Rebout, on the large Gallo-Roman ensemble near the Pâture du Couvent and on the Roman residence in the Parc aux Chevaux.
Specialists, researchers and professors with their students from all over Europe meet in Bibracte every summer to excavate different parts of the city. The universities of Kiel , Leipzig (Sabine Rieckhoff), Ingolstadt and Mainz are represented from Germany, the University of Vienna (Otto Urban) from Austria and the University of Lausanne from Switzerland . Other experts come from Belgium, Spain, Poland, England, Hungary, Italy, Slovenia and the Czech Republic. Each university is working on a three-year project, this project currently revolves around understanding how a Celtic city worked in the La Tène period . Your research consists of a few weeks of work in the field, after which the finds are extensively studied and then stored in the research center.
The archaeological research techniques on Mont Beuvray
Bulliot's excavation technique was rudimentary. It consisted of observing unnatural soil phenomena. This allowed him to draw up a plan of the city wall with almost no excavation . He used this technique with the help of army topographers who drew up a series of maps of this terrain. Only that of the Porrey district has survived to our day.
In recent years the same technique has been used in the Porrey district, only with more precise tools such as theodolite and GPS . Unfortunately, due to the nature of the soil and the vegetation, investigations using aerial photographs or electromagnetic investigations are impossible. This vegetation has led to a foresting of the hill since the end of the management and excavations of Déchelette. A more expensive but faster technique was tested in 2007: laser technology. It penetrates the vegetation and reveals within a few minutes what would normally take weeks of digging. The aim of this work is to develop a complete city map and to archive the topography of the place.
The organization of the oppidum
Research conducted by Bulliot and Déchelette at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries revealed the division of the city into quarters. Overall, the buildings follow a main road that leads from the Porte du Rebout to the Grandes Portes. This city map differs from Oppida like Manching , which are evenly divided into parcels. The uneven layout of Bibracte is explained by its terrain, which enclosed three peaks, some of which slopes steeply.
The excavations since 1984 seem to roughly confirm the hypotheses of Bulliot and Déchelette, although here and there there are some small changes.
The city walls
Bibracte was protected by massive Murus Gallicus walls . Thanks to the excavations, its history could be reconstructed: Two walls followed one another, an inner and an outer wall. The inner wall was repaired at least five times; this is what research at the Porte du Rebout has shown. Amazingly, the inner wall was built after the outer one. The city reduced its area from 200 hectares to 135 hectares.
The first wall to be discovered by Bulliot is a Murus Gallicus, it was 5 km long and bounded an area of 135 hectares. It is estimated that 10,000 cubic meters of wood, between 10,000 and 20,000 cubic meters of earth and around 30 tons of iron were required to build the wall. The second wall, which lies outside the first, has been archaeologically explored since 1992. The investigations showed that the wall had a height of 4 to 5 meters without the wall crown , the design of which is still unknown today (palisades, towers?). A trench two to four meters deep was in front of it over a length of six to ten meters. The wall was a Murus Gallicus ; it was demolished because the material was needed to build the inner wall. The dating of this event is imprecise, it is said to have been in the second century BC. To have happened. At the height of the Porrey hill, a dropout gate was discovered, the only known dropout gate for fortifications of the Murus Gallicus type.
The wall is interrupted by around 15 gates, including the famous Porte du Rebout (20 meters wide and 40 meters deep). It was the first find by Bulliot, who worked here for nine weeks, and it was the first construction site of the more recent excavations, which began in 1984 and followed by exploration of the adjacent trenches in 1986. This work demonstrated five repairs in a palisade. This palisade was rebuilt from 1996 and now marks the entrance to the oppidum . To date it has not yet been found out how the gates were closed, and no defensive artillery has been found. Some suspect a double gate, which is surmounted by a wooden watchtower, this construction is known from the oppidum in Manching . So far, however, nothing has been able to confirm this assumption.
Since 2005, research has concentrated on a line of fortifications below the Porte du Rebout. Dates indicate that this work was created after the Porte du Rebout and thus represents a reinforcement of the fortification. This will be investigated in the next excavation campaigns. At the same time, tombs of aristocrats were discovered between the two city walls.
The artisan district in Côme Chaudron and Champlain
The districts called Côme Chaudron and Champlain are near the Porte du Rebout. The excavations since 2000 uncovered a quarter there that is characterized by metalwork and accommodation for craftsmen. The work on these metals seems to have been very specialized; you can find blacksmiths , bronze casters, goldsmiths , mints and enamel manufacturers whose workshops have already been marked by Bulliot. The excavations on the Beuvray near the Champlain and on the surrounding mountains gradually uncover mines . Metals such as gold , iron and tin ore were mined here . This research will continue and will attempt to discover the molten metal outside the oppidum. Looking at the specialization of the workshops in Bibracte, it is likely that the metals came into the city in the form of bars, so the bars were cast outside the city.
Another artisan district was found on one of the peaks: the Pierre de la Wivre; an area little explored by Bulliot and Déchelette. This neighborhood will be the object of future excavations.
The flats
The Gallic houses were mostly built of wood and earth, stones were rarely used, they were needed for the city walls. Since wood is poorly preserved, little is known about its construction. In the Parc aux Chevaux district, stone structures, houses of aristocrats, were found. At the level of the Pâture du Couvent, a house with columns was discovered, it is certainly a public building, probably built shortly after the Gallic War.
Parc aux Chevaux
The plateau called "Parc aux Chevaux" is located in the center of Mont Beuvray. Several Roman stone houses were excavated there during the 19th century, in particular House PC1 (so baptized by Bulliot). This house evolved from a wooden construction inspired by the Roman architectural style into a real domus with atrium , impluvium , porticos and even thermal baths that were heated by a hypocaust . There was also a sewage system. When completed, the house measured 55 meters * 67 meters and covered an area of 3500 m², which is about four times the size of the domus found in Pompeii . There were an estimated 15 domus in this district, such as B. PC2: It was much smaller than PC1 and faced it on the other side of the main street. Houses like the PC33 of the Villa Rustica type were also found here. However, it is not known for sure whether this was exclusively a residential area for the elite, as excavations have also discovered blacksmiths near the domus.
The basin and its surroundings
In the middle of the main street, at the level of the Pâture du Couvent, there is a pink granite basin. The transversal alignment of the basin corresponds to sunrise on the winter solstice and to sunset on the summer solstice . The water flowed off through the north entrance following a canal. The supply of water to the basin has not yet been discovered:
The use of the pool is still unknown: Holy place where the city was founded? Water cult? According to some specialists, the method of working granite is unusual and is based on techniques for working with lime from the Mediterranean region . Without a doubt, the Haedu have brought in foreign aid to work on the basin. All this indicates that this basin does not belong to the Celtic design.
In the vicinity of the basin there were many cellars and public buildings that stored large quantities of grain and wine imported from the Mediterranean . One of the wooden cellars was recently reconstructed. The Haedu people gathered their crops and imports in these buildings.
Cult places
The Bibracte oppidum had ten springs and five wells in the Gallic or Gallo-Roman period . The Saint-Pierre fountain was a place of worship and pilgrimage; coins and votive tablets were found in it . On the top of the mountain, a Celtic cult site (nemeton) of one hectare in size was uncovered, it was surrounded by a palisade and concentric circles. A Gallo-Roman temple was discovered under the present chapel from the 19th century during the excavations in 1988 . The abandonment of the city before Christianization did not stop people from continuing to make pilgrimages to these places.
necropolis
The necropolis is located in today's museum parking lot. During the construction of the museum and the street, excavations were carried out here. 70 graves (cremations) were found on an area of 1.5 hectares and were accessed through an entrance in the east. A place was found south of it for the cremation of the dead. More urns were found below the Porte du Rebout, these are certainly the remains of an aristocratic family. Additional cemeteries must be located along the access roads to the city (as was often the case in this era), but they have not yet been excavated.
A shop window into the Celtic world
Le musée de la civilization celtique (Museum of Celtic Civilization)
The area houses the "Musée de la civilization celtique", it was opened in 1996. The museum has few of its own exhibits, many objects are on loan from other museums, so you could already marvel at the Coligny calendar and the Gundestrup cauldron .
Permanent exhibitions
The 2000 m² exhibition space is spread over two floors. The first floor shows Bibracte in the overall context of the European-Celtic culture. Most of the objects deal with the following themes: war, the age of the Oppida , trade with the Mediterranean , agriculture.
The ground floor is dedicated to the life of the Haeduer in Bibracte: everyday objects, jewelry, urns and workshops are reconstructed or exhibited here. There are also audiovisual presentations and animations for educational purposes.
Temporary exhibitions
In the summer there are temporary exhibitions that make it possible to deepen the knowledge of archeology , especially in the field of the Celtic world.
Center de Recherche (Research and Documentation Center)
The Center de Recherche was opened in 1994. It is four kilometers from Beuvray in the municipality of Glux-en-Glenne ( Nièvre department ). It contains one of the most important libraries in the Celtic world and is regularly supplied by European researchers. There is also a warehouse with archaeological objects and the administration of the Parc archéologique.
See also
literature
- Rudolf Fellmann (ed.): Caesar and Vercingetorix . Zabern, Mainz 2000 ( Zabern's illustrated books on archeology / special issues from the ancient world )
Web links
- BIBRACTE: research center with excavation site and museum (French)
- Laurent Flutsch: Bibracte, Battle of. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland .
Individual evidence
- ^ Pierre-Yves Lambert: La langue gauloise. éditions errance 1994. p. 188.
- ↑ Christian Goudineau, Christian Peyre: Bibracte et les Eduens. A la découverte d'un peuple gaulois. éditions errance 1993, p. 15.
- ↑ a b c d e Christian Goudineau, Christian Peyre: Bibracte et les Éduens. A la découverte d'un peuple gaulois. Editions Errance 1993, pp. 1-6.
- ↑ a b Christian Goudineau: Regards sur la Gaule. Editions Errance, 1998, pp. 65-82.
- ^ Stephan Fichtl: La ville celtique, Les oppida de 150 av. J.-C. à 15 ap. J.-C. éditions Errance, 2005, p. 17.
- ↑ Christian Goudineau, Christian Peyre: Bibracte et les Eduens, À la découverte d'un peuple gaulois. éditions Errance, 1993, p. 27.
- ^ A b c Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, p. 60.
- ↑ Little Pauly . Volume 2, Munich 1979, column 108 f.
- ↑ Cicero: de divinatione 1.90: “ et in Gallia Druidae sunt, e quibus ipse Divitiacum Haeduum… cognovi ” (German: “and in Gallien there are the Druids from whom I myself got to know the Haeduer Divitiacus.”)
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar : Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Book 1, 23.
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: Commentarii de Bello Gallico. 7, 63.
- ^ Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, p. 16.
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Book 7.90; 8, 2.
- ^ Strabo: Geographika. Book 3, 3, 2.
- ^ Stephan Fichtl: La ville celtique, Les oppida de 150 av. J.-C. à 15 ap. J.-C. Editions Errance, 2005, pp. 191–198.
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: Commentarii de Bello Gallico. 1, 33.
- ↑ Histoire de la Gaule. 8 vol, Camille Jullian
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: Commentarii de Bello Gallico. I.18.
- ↑ a b Christian Goudineau, Christian Peyre: Bibracte et les Éduens, À la découverte d'un peuple gaulois. Editions Errance, 1993, pp. 81-83.
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar : Commentarii de Bello Gallico . 6, 14.
- ^ Gaius Iulius Caesar: Commentarii de Bello Gallico. I.
- ^ Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, pp. 63–64.
- ^ A b Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, pp. 98–99.
- ↑ a b c d Bibracte excavation site, archeology department
- ^ Stephan Fichtl: La ville celtique, Les oppida de 150 av. J.-C. à 15 ap. J.-C. éditions Errance, 2005, pp. 62–63 (based on the calculations by Joseph Déchelette and corrected with the data obtained during the reconstruction of the city wall at the Porte du Rebout).
- ^ Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, pp. 67–69.
- ^ A b c Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Bibracte-Center archéologique européen, 2006, pp. 87–89.
- ↑ PC1, for Parc aux Chevaux 1. Bulliot used the initials of the place where it was found as an abbreviation, and then assigned numbers to each individual building
- ^ Parc au Chevaux 2
- ↑ Parc aux Chevaux 33
- ^ M. Almagro-Gorbea, J. Gran-Aymerich: El estanque Monumental de Bibracte. Madrid, Editorial Complutense, 1991, pp. 237-238.
- ^ Anne-Marie Romero: Bibracte Archeologie d'une ville gauloise. Charred seeds were found in a burned cellar.
- ↑ Christian Goudineau, Christian Peyre: Bibracte et les Eduens, À la découverte d'un peuple gaulois. Editions Errance, 1993, pp. 90-94.
- ↑ Christian Goudineau, Christian Peyre: Bibracte et les Eduens, À la découverte d'un peuple gaulois. Editions Errance, 1993, pp. 84-89.