An enemy of the people

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Henrik Ibsen by Gustav Borgen
Title page of the original manuscript

Ein Volksfeind (Norwegian: En Folkefiende ) is a socially critical drama by the Norwegian writer Henrik Ibsen from 1882. The leitmotifs are truth and freedom as well as majority and law . Ibsen particularly objects to public opinion , which is often accepted as the truth. He wrote An Enemy of the People in response to the criticism of his plays Nora or A Doll's House and Ghosts . Both were considered scandalous in his day as Ibsen went against the prevailing conventions . Ibsen's last socialdrama, An Enemy of the People , was, as expected of him, successful with audiences and theater criticism despite the explosive topic and is still frequently performed and used as school reading.

The content of the naturalistic drama is the conflict between a spa doctor and the dignitaries as well as the citizens of a Norwegian health resort. The city, which is economically heavily dependent on the spa, defamed the spa doctor as an enemy of the people. Because he wants to publish a scientific report, according to which the water of the spa is contaminated. Finally, he comes to the conclusion that the whole of society is poisoned because it rests on the "ground of lies". He claims that the "compact, liberal " and "closed majority" are "the most dangerous enemy of truth and freedom."

The protagonist fights against the irrational tendencies of the masses and the hypocritical and corrupt political system that they support. An enemy of the people is the drama of a brave man trying to do what is right in the name of truth in an environment of extreme social intolerance. But all figures show breaks and contradictions, so that the boundaries between good and bad, truth and lies are not clear.

The play has five acts and was first performed on January 13, 1883 at the Christiania Theater in Oslo . The German premiere took place in 1890 by the newly founded Freie Volksbühne Berlin .

Structure of the drama and critical-realistic method

Ibsen constructs his play largely according to the ancient drama theory of Aristotle , but leaves the end open. He transfers the critical-realistic method, which has already been developed in literature, to the theater and thus enables an economic, social, political analysis of bourgeois society combined with complex, contradicting individual figure drawings, as far as possible based on reality (naturalism). By including epic echoes, undesirable according to Aristotle, he opens up a wider historical horizon than is possible in traditional drama. He points out problems in the past as a source of the present conflict. He also uses different language levels and formulates detailed stage directions in order to get as close as possible to reality. With all this he points to different directions of modern theater in the 20th century.

action

The drama takes place in a coastal town in southern Norway. The place lives from tourism, not least because of the new bath, which the bailiff describes as the “ most noble source of life in the city ”. The protagonist is the spa doctor Dr. Thomas Stockmann. He has been living in the health resort for some time with his wife Kathrine ("Käte"), their daughter Petra, who is a teacher by profession, and their two sons Eilif (13 years old) and Morten (10 years old). The antagonist is the mayor and chairman of the bathing administration, Peter Stockmann, the doctor's older brother.

The Discovery - Act 1

The action begins in the Stockmann family's living room, where the editor of the Volksbote Hovstad and his colleague Billing are guests. The mayor also comes. Since his brother is out with his sons, he talks to Hovstad about the bathroom. As the chairman of the spa administration, the mayor raves about the prosperity and upswing that the spa has brought to the town in recent years. When Hovstad discusses the important role his younger brother played in the creation of the spa, Peter Stockmann fights back and underlines his own excellent contribution to the promotion of the spa.

Then both Dr. Stockmann as well as his sons and Captain Horster. A first dispute arises between Thomas and Peter. The Volksbote wants to print a positive article written by Thomas about the spa, which Peter approves, but Thomas vehemently rejects for an initially unexplained reason. At this point in time, Thomas Stockmann only spoke of abnormal conditions in the spa without naming them. It is only when Peter, enraged by Thomas' reluctance to publish the article, has gone and Petra steps on the scene with a letter from the postman, does it become apparent what it is about.

The spa doctor had the drinking water and sea water of the health resort analyzed by chemists at a university. It was found that it contains harmful or pathogenic microorganisms. This confirmed his objections when building the pool: The entire recently built water pipe must be moved. He proudly announces this news to Hovstad and Billing, who enthusiastically agree. You are already speculating on how to thank him.

Dr. Thomas Stockmann is determined to rectify the situation and make the report public. In a letter to the bathing administration, including his brother, he wants to present the evidence. He assumes that the mayor will welcome the discovery and allows journalists to print a small article about the finding.

The Brothers Conflict - Act 2

Thomas opens a letter from his brother in his living room, who sends the report back to him and announces his visit so that he can speak to him personally about it.

Appearance of Morten Kiil, Kathrine's foster father and owner of the tannery that caused the water contamination: He congratulates the spa doctor on the successful prank, because he believes that Thomas invented the scandal to expose the bailiff. Peter Stockmann had ensured that Kiil was voted out of the city council.

Hovstad and the book printer Aslaksen, representative of the petty bourgeoisie, take the stage and offer Dr. Thomas Stockmann offers their support. They emphasize that it is important and right to print your article as quickly as possible in order to clear up the grievances of the spa and thus bring the truth to light. According to Hovstad, this will lead to the realization that the authorities are not infallible and motivate the people to depose the dignitaries. As a result, the spa doctor himself can rise to a leading position and help determine the fate of the spa. Through this liberation from oppression he will be able to use his abilities positively, gain knowledge and increase his self-esteem. When protesting, the people should not worry about possible resistance from previous leaders.

Here Aslaksen Hovstad contradicts in the sense that he strictly rejects any form of violence. He is afraid of the reaction of the leading personalities, as they have overwhelming power and could thus be dangerous to the rebellious people. Aslaksen represents the interests of the petty bourgeoisie, especially those of the homeowners, and in this context emphasizes several times that one must proceed in a moderate manner and not attract too much attention. He also emphasizes his influence in the health resort and decides to talk to the house owners immediately to convince them of the plan. A kind of open letter of thanks on the part of the citizens to the spa doctor should be issued and recognize his commitment to the charitable cause.

When Aslaksen left, Hovstad describes Thomas as “cowardly” and “half-hearted” and emphasizes that you have to be independent and confident. The two men decide that, even if Thomas Stockmann's debate with his brother fails, the editor will write an editorial on the subject and be allowed to publish the university analysis.

After Hovstad has also left the living room, Petra returns from school. Thomas reports on the talks with Hovstad and Aslaksen and proudly announces that he has " the closed majority " behind him.

Then - as announced - his brother Peter, chairman of the bathing administration, appears. He demands from Thomas not to bring the report and the allegations against the spa administration to the public. First he tries to convince the spa doctor with arguments. He argues that the renovation, which could remove the pollution from the tannery, would take at least two years and entail immense costs that the petty bourgeoisie would have to bear. During this time, the stream of visitors would turn to baths in the surrounding areas and one of the city's main sources of income would dry up. The future of the hometown becomes uncertain. Thus, the secrecy of the knowledge ultimately serves the common good . However, since rumors were already circulating about poisoned water and the people's messenger had already been informed, he urged his brother to publicly oppose all reports about the contamination of the water.

The health resort doctor is horrified by his brother's plans and describes them as " deceit - a deception, a lie, downright a crime against the public, against the whole of society ". He insists on his position that the well-being of the spa guests is more important than economic benefits and invokes the freedom of speech for everyone. He goes on to argue that sooner or later the flaws will come to light and thus drive the city into ruin. Thereupon the city bailiff threatens to be dismissed as a spa doctor if he dares to go public with his report. He describes his brother as annoying and irritable, even as an "enemy of society".

When the dispute threatens to escalate, Kathrine tries to settle the dispute out of fear of losing her existence - because her brother had often supported the family - while Petra, with her father's support, aims to do exactly the opposite. The mayor leaves the house threateningly, and Kathrine tries in vain to change her husband's mind. However, he does not allow himself to be confused and does not want to forfeit his right to look "his" boys in the eyes, once they are adult, free men.

The Doctor's Loss of Support - Act 3

The third act takes place in the Volksbote's editorial office . Hovstad and his colleague Billing talk about Dr. Stockmann's explosive material. Both consider a publication a "revolution".

Then the doctor appears and announces eagerly and hurriedly at the same time, also in a combative manner, that his article could go to print and the "war" has begun, which the two gentlemen are very happy about. Dr. Stockmann is convinced that he has the majority on his side. He speaks metaphorically of the purification of the community and emphasizes that he is acting “ in the name of truth and for the sake of my conscience ”. Hovstad proclaims the common people to take power. Only Aslaksen objects that moderation should be maintained in the project. Together, Hovstad, Billing and Aslaksen honor the spa doctor as a “friend of the people”. He thanks and leaves the editorial office, leaving his manuscript to Aslaksen.

In the conversation that followed, the contradictions of the people become clear: Although Aslaksen appears fearful with his moderate remarks, he is politically influential and assertive. Hovstad, meanwhile, is taking on the editorial position previously held by a government president, and Billing has just applied for a secretarial position despite portraying himself as an opponent of the authorities.

Hovstad stays behind alone in the office and receives a visit from Petra. He admits to her that his support for her father is also related to his liking for her. The young woman is very indignant. When he points out to her that her father needs the help of the People's Messenger, she leaves the office in disgust.

Then the mayor comes in through a back door to speak to the editor of the Volksbote . He succeeds in dissuading Aslaksen as well as Hovstad and Billing from their plan by intimidating them on the one hand and trying to convince them with the arguments that the money for the renovation must be raised by the taxpayers and the bathing facility closed for at least two years.

At this very moment, Dr. Stockmann the office. His brother is hiding. Kathrine also appears. She does not want to allow her husband's article to be printed because she is afraid for the family's existence. But the councilor Peter Stockmann does not go undiscovered for long. His hat and stick betrayed him.

The situation escalates when Thomas Stockmann realizes that neither the majority of the citizens nor one of the three men are behind him. All three make it clear that the publication of his article is not in the interest of the public, the enlightened public, the homeowners or the subscribers. In this situation Kathrine acknowledges her husband's point of view for the first time and guarantees him her support.

Dr. Thomas Stockmann now decides to read his manuscript “ in a large popular assembly ” so that all fellow citizens “ hear the voice of the truth ”.

From friend of the people to enemy of the people - 4th act

Figure constellation: from friend of the people to enemy of the people.

The fourth act takes place in a hall that belongs to Captain Horster. Only he, as a seafarer, was willing to give Thomas Stockmann a room for his rally. A large crowd of all estates is present, his family, Aslaksen, Hovstad, Billing and the mayor. Before the meeting there was a report from the mayor in the Volksbote , according to which the statements of the spa doctor were not true. With his renovation plans, he would financially ruin the whole city.

With this in mind, Aslaksen succeeds in gaining control of the event as chairman. In this role he appeals to Dr. Stockmann to moderate himself. In addition, it enables the city bailiff to turn the citizens in the hall against the spa doctor and thus enforce the “ people's will ”, according to which the spa should continue to be just as lucrative as before. Hovstad, too, feels compelled to take a position: He defends his “ liberal attitude ”, but notes that local issues are excluded and emphasizes that it is the duty of an editor to “work in agreement with his readers ” and “ the To promote the welfare of his like-minded people ”. When Aslaksen tries to silence the spa doctor by voting, Doctor Stockmann surprises the crowd with the announcement that he will not talk about the local grievances, but about the decline of society as a whole. Through the scandal about the contaminated water he noticed " that all our spiritual sources of life are poisoned, that our entire civil society rests on the polluted soil of lies ". He complains about the incompetence of the " top of the bathing administration ". The main reason for the misery, however, is the “ compact, liberal ” and “ closed majority ”, because it is the “ most dangerous enemy of truth and freedom ”. “ The majority has power - unfortunately -; but she doesn't have the right. [...] The minority always has the right. “He considers everything else to be a social lie,“ against which a free, thinking man must revolt ”.

Dr. Stockmann criticizes the lack of acceptance of newborn, young, germinating truths. The majority therefore believe in truths “ that are so old that they are on the way to becoming shaky. But when a truth has gotten this old, it is well on the way to becoming a lie. “A“ normally built truth ”lives“ as a rule seventeen to eighteen, at most twenty years; rarely longer ”. Truths lose their truthfulness over time and yet new truths would only be recognized by the majority in old age. Such outdated “ majority truths ” are the reason for the moral “ scurvy that is rampant in all walks of life ”.

In addition, Dr. Stockmann, that it " never, ever correct [can], that the stupid about the wise rule ". The wise are the noble, that is, the liberal. Finally, with quasi religious words, he condemns the “ heresy ” of the people's messenger that “ the masses and the mob […] were in possession of freedom and morality ”, and declares that “ the stupidity, the poverty, the misery of the Living conditions ”are the reason for this“ devil's work ”with the consequence“ to base the future of the city on a muddy floor of lies and deceit ”.

Through the polemic of Dr. Stockmanns the audience is angry. The crowd is completely enraged when he announces: “ It doesn’t matter if a lying society perishes. [...] may the whole country perish; may the whole people be exterminated here! “Aslaksen, a member of the moderation association, then puts a vote on whether Dr. Stockmann is an "enemy of the people" or not. With every vote, except that of a drunk, the spa doctor is declared an enemy of the people. The angry crowd moves to the residence of the Stockmann family. It is only through the courageous commitment of Captain Horster that Dr. Stockmann and his family to return to their home.

The doctor remains resistant - 5th act

The place of the action is the doctor's study. He picks up stones which the angry crowd had thrown through his windows. He is deeply affected by the accusation of being an enemy of the people.

Gradually the effects of his speech are becoming clear. The local council presented the resignation to his brother, the landlord also resigned from the family and Petra's superior dismissed the teacher: all based on public opinion. The only one who sticks to the family is Captain Horster. He was also released for the reasons mentioned. Thomas wants to move to the New World (America) with his family, with Captain Horster at his side. “ We don't want to live in such a mess any longer. “The whole city turned against him.

Then a surprising twist occurs: Peter talks to his brother about Morten Kiil's great fortune. Thomas admits that the family is expecting a larger inheritance later. The city bailiff then insinuated that everything was " an agreed revenge for the will of old, vengeful Morten Kiil ". He also provides Dr. Stockmann has the prospect of being reinstated as a spa doctor if he withdraws his accusations. Shortly after the mayor has left the house, Morten Kiil appears and informs Thomas that until recently he has put money aside that should benefit both Kathrine and the children. But now he has invested the money in shares in the spa and bought almost all of the securities. If Thomas is not completely indifferent to his family's future, then he must admit his mistake about water pollution. Only in this way would share prices rise again and the future of the family would be secured. As the owner of the tannery that pollutes the spa, Morten Kiil wants to keep his reputation and that of his company from being damaged.

Enter Hovstad and Aslaksen. They believe that the sole purpose of exposing the spa’s grievances was to lower stock prices in order to get the papers cheaply. Now they take up again for Dr. Stockmann party and offer him their paper as an instrument to influence public opinion. They hope to get financial support from him for the “Volksbote”.

Thereupon Thomas loses his composure, threatens the two gentlemen with an umbrella, rejects Morten Kiil's offer and decides not to emigrate to America. In his hometown he wants to teach his two sons with Petra's help and raise them to be free, noble men. In addition, more children of free thinkers or needy people should attend these classes. They could find accommodation with Captain Horster. Dr. Stockmann's decision is clear: he and his family will not bow to society. On the contrary: "I just want to show the dogs that the liberals are the most insidious enemies of free men, - that the party programs turn the neck of all young, viable truths, - that considerations of expediency turn morality and righteousness upside down, so that life here, in the end, becomes torture. ”Dr. Stockmann is not afraid of the " Isegrims ", because "he is the strongest man in the world who stands alone ".

Actors and place

The Stockmann brothers

On the one hand, the conflict between Peter and Thomas Stockmann is about the dispute between older and younger brother; on the other hand, both represent opposing political positions.

Thomas, the spa doctor

Norwegian actor Egil Eide as Dr. Stockmann
Dr. Thomas Stockmann is the spa doctor's spa doctor and therefore enjoys - enjoyed - a very high reputation in the city. He looks forward to the future with confidence, optimism and expectation. He describes himself as a “ man of science ”, but at the same time is in good faith, because he initially defends his brother as a capable, intelligent city leader and initially contradicts both Hovstad, who wants to denounce the machinations of the city officials in the Volksbote, and Aslaksen as the offers him the support of the influential petty bourgeoisie. Because such a “clear simple matter” makes “special precautions” unnecessary. He also describes his father-in-law Morten Kiil, who is actually a wealthy and influential man and, not least, will bequeath most of his fortune to Thomas' family, as a harmless " old badger ". His idealism and optimism lead to a delusion, so that he does not see through his surroundings, his surroundings.
Thomas likes to live comfortably and sometimes beyond his means, " like a grand signer ". He owes his high standard of living to his brother, who appointed him spa doctor at the flourishing health resort. There were times when he was “ without bread […], without a fixed income ”. After several lonely years in the remote north, he is happy to be back home. For him it is “a vital need to be with young, fresh, carefree people, with free-thinking, enterprising people [...]”. The doctor is hospitable and sociable, after all, he welcomes everyone in his house - sometimes a little distant.
But the figure of the doctor is more complex because he is also a contentious individualist. He is amazed that there are others besides his perspective. He shows a pronounced self-confidence, is headstrong and determined. After he has stated that truths are sometimes out of date, he expresses himself relentlessly and cruelly at the end of the meeting he has called when the closed masses oppose him. If his truth does not prevail, the entire deceitful society, the entire people, can perish because of him.
His brother Peter describes him as follows: “ You have a restless, argumentative, rebellious disposition. “He is naturally inclined to go his own way. He is also " irritable ", hasty and inconsiderate. He is acting undiplomatically and it is not surprising that he rejects current politics.
“ A party that's like a meat chopper; in it all heads are ground to a pulp; and therefore they are all morons and flat-heads, one like the other. “Thomas does not want to tolerate any authority over himself, which is why his brother calls him an annoying employee, but the editor Hovstad describes him as a“ revolutionary ”.
The town bailiff and brother sums up this attitude: “ You complain about the authorities, even about the government, - even tear them down, - claim that you are being reset, persecuted. But can you expect anything else? "
The bath doctor is sometimes quick-tempered, cynical and uses strong expressions. Strongly related to himself, he forgets about his family. “ Everything only thinks of the family and not of society ” His wife, on the other hand, thinks of the family, because “ she [his wife] knows about such things . "
At times Thomas seems bossy when he talks to his wife and children - everyone should obey him without resistance. He considers himself unreasonable and modest: “ Oh what! Basically, I was just doing my duty. "
Thomas is concerned about the well-being of the bathers because he feels responsible as a doctor. As a result, he does not want to withhold the truth, but rather to make it public: With the truth, " I go through the city and read it out on every street corner ". His strong desire to always intervene a say, and comment on, not only makes him a " tremendously fruitful [n] employees " of the "people's servants" but also a Democrat ( " a useful and active citizens "): " Is it not the duty of a citizen to let the audience know when they have a new thought! "
Thomas is very active politically. He was the first and only one “ who saw that the city could become a flourishing seaside resort ”. He fought for this thought. He always wanted to do something good for his hometown. He is therefore happy when he is initially called a “friend of the people” after his discovery . Since Peter did not have him involved in the decisions when building the bath, he now wants to prove to him that he was right back then. So he persistently and indomitably brings the truth to light: “ What I do, I do in the name of the truth and for the sake of my conscience. “Thomas acts in the sense of medical ethics as well as science and freedom, consequently progressive and liberal; “ I want the freedom to speak out about all sorts of things in the world! “But he insists on always being in the right, since he always considers the clever and intellectual as superior to the majority.
Unbroken, persistent and energetic, the doctor finally decides to stay in the spa and fight for truth and freedom. Together with his daughter, he wants to pass on his ideals to their own sons and children of free thinkers.

Peter, the governor

Peter, Thomas' older brother, who is also mayor, police director and chairman of the bathing administration, is a conservative . “ Oh, the audience doesn't need any new thoughts. The audience is best served with the old, good, recognized thoughts they already have. “The governor is single and, from his brother's point of view,“ only does business, and always does business ”. The accumulation of offices gives him recognition and support. In order to maintain its power, it behaves authoritarian and selfish, because he is " to my [his] own sake. He differentiates himself from Thomas: He is “ of a different kind ”. He lets everyone feel his authority, also by demonstratively carrying the command baton with him and wearing the official cap. In addition, he makes use of an official language that appears wooden by using many nominalizations, foreign words and technical terms. In addition, he often refers to his position: " I, as chairman of the bathing administration " or " I, your highest superior " This creates the impression of a certain uncertainty, because he explicitly emphasizes his position in order to increase his reputation: "[... ] I [watch] over my reputation with a certain fearfulness [...] ”.
His brother, the spa doctor, would undermine his power and reputation if he informed the public about the pollution of the water. The hierarchy shapes his thinking and acting. He reproaches his brother that “ as an employee of the bathroom ” he is not allowed to express any convictions that are contrary to those of his superiors. “ The individual must definitely submit to the whole, [...] to the authorities who have to watch over the common good. "
In addition, he denies his “ unfavorable ” family background and shows his contempt for the petty bourgeoisie, especially he turns against Hovstad as editor of the “Volksbote”: “ There is something strange about the people who are directly descended from farmers; they are and remain tactless. "
The mayor always keeps things in order, so that everything happens “according to the rules of procedure ”. He describes himself as " a little more economical " than his brother, whom he considers lavish and decadent. Furthermore, it is not his way of “getting in the hair ”. Instead, he brings people to his side through argument and pressure.
Often the elder corrects his brother and acts like his tutor. Although single, he instructs Thomas that a "family man" should " not act as you do ". “ It was always my hope to be able to keep you somewhat in check when I helped you improve your economic position. “He also explains to his brother that public opinion is“ an extremely variable thing ”.
As chairman of the bathing administration, the mayor pursues economic interests: “ What a huge boom the place has not seen in the last few years! Money has come out here; Life and movement! House and property are increasing in value every day. [...] The burden of the poor has decreased to a gratifying extent for the possessing classes [...]. “As a“ large, new, magnificent bathroom ”it will be the“ most elegant source of life in the city. “Through the bath , there is a beautiful spirit of compatibility in our city; - a sense of citizenship as it should be ”. He considers the spa to be the center of civil life, since everyone “ can gather around a big, common matter ”. As a result, he feels responsible for the citizens of the city - not for the outside bathers.

The relationship of the brothers to one another

Although shaped by conflicts, the brotherly relationship seems to be stable in the long term, because both support each other - as long as their opposing worldview and the associated behavior allow this. For example, Thomas initially defends his brother as a capable and intelligent mayor, and Peter offers him the opportunity to withdraw his statements until the end so that he can hire him again as a spa doctor.
For a long time, there has been disagreement between the two of them as to what they have contributed to building the successful spa. Thomas claims to have laid the foundations for the bathroom. Peter smiles at this and says: “ My brother has certainly had enough ideas in his life - unfortunately. But if something is to be set in motion, men of a different kind are needed. "He admits that Thomas" also had a modest stake in this company. ““ When […] the right moment came, I […] took matters into my own hands. "
According to Thomas, the receiving basin was built too low so that the water could be poisoned. It must, he demands, be moved to a much higher position. He “ wrote against it when [his brother] was about to begin construction. But at that time nobody wanted to listen to me. “For this reason, Thomas would now like to publicly denounce this“ mistake ”.
The brothers look at themselves and society from different perspectives. Thomas is first and foremost a “ man of science ” who, as a spa doctor, fights for the well-being of bathers and as a scientist for the truth, but also for freedom - more precisely, freedom of expression. In addition, he shows himself to be an idealist, because he acts altruistically - in the sense of the bathers - and does not pursue any selfish, material goals. Peter, on the other hand, represents contrary values. As the holder of power, he is an advocate of loyalty to higher authorities and demands a certain amount of willingness to sacrifice in the sense of community spirit. Maintaining the social order as it is is important to him. The audience is served with the good old thoughts and ideas. Peter is the counterpart to the idealistic rebel - a well-off dignitary committed to the conventions, guided by profit thinking.

The Dr. Stockmanns

Thomas' family is his backbone. She supports him and gives him support while society turns against him and declares him an enemy of the people.

Kathrine, his wife

“Kate” Stockmann often looks like the waitress or even her husband's property: “ You have n't forgotten Toddy, have you , Kate? “The way in which she receives and serves the guests confirms the successful suppression by Thomas:“ Here is Arrak, and this is rum; and here is the cognac. “Nevertheless, she stands resolutely and loyally behind her husband:“ So I'll show you - an old woman who can also be a man one day. Because now I do it with you, Thomas! "Every now and then she criticizes him:" Oh yes, the right, the right; what good is the law if you don't have the power? “This also shows their pragmatic thinking.
"Käte" takes care of the children and is often protective and restrictive. She directs them back to their rooms when they listen to the adults' conversations out of curiosity. “ Now, however, make sure you come in, you boys; you certainly still have homework for tomorrow. “She also behaves in an authoritarian manner towards her daughter, the teacher Petra. “ Do you want to be silent, Petra! “She should also stay out of political affairs.
Thomas Stockmann asks her to do the same. She had to take care of her housekeeping and let him take care of the community. That's why she knits while the others are talking or withdraws completely: “ Come on, Petra. You and Petra go into the room on the left. "
But when it comes to the well-being of the family, or even their existence, she interferes in the conversation. She is afraid that Thomas will “ throw her all into disaster ” again : “ Then you will be without bread again, with no fixed income. I should think we would have tasted enough in earlier days; don't forget that, Thomas; […]. “She clearly points out his responsibility to him. “ But against your family, Thomas? Against us? Is that what you call doing your duty to those whose providers you are? “In vain she tries to moderate him:“ But control yourself like that ”and“ just don't get heated right away, Thomas ”. She desperately seeks help from God and asks for his consolation.
She tries to settle the dispute over fame and honor between her husband and his older brother. “ But is it worth making a fuss about [who was responsible for building the spa]? Can't you and Thomas share the honor fraternally? "At the same time she tries to get her husband to give in:" You know what, Thomas, you should be nice and share the honor with him [Peter] . Couldn't it be said that he put you on the trail -? “But these attempts at arbitration fail, and when the conflict between the two escalates, she throws herself between the adversaries to prevent worse.

Petra, his daughter

Petra is Thomas' only daughter. She is a teacher and would love to open her own school because “ At home and at school there is so much untruth. We should be silent at home, and at school we have to lie to the children. “In the future she wants to become a journalist, but she makes a different decision when Hovstad reveals to her that the“ newspaper writers ”are not good and that his support for her father was actually an attempt to get in touch .
Just like her father, she wants to pave the way for " misunderstood truths " and " new, courageous views ". She strictly rejects lies and deceit: “ Ugh; so insidiously do you [Hovstad] go and put noose on your readers; You're not a spider. “She knows what to believe and looks forward to the future with enthusiasm and optimism, because there are“ so many good and useful things ”to accomplish. It is therefore hardly surprising that she sympathizes with her father's views and supports him from the start.
Petra is curious and interested in politics and, like her father, is of the opinion that the common good is more important than the family (" Oh, don't always think of us first and foremost, mother. "). Ibsen draws her, unusual for the late 19th century, as an emancipated, working young woman. In contrast to the men, she understands English. Overall, she seems more educated. As a teacher she is efficient and hardworking. Your demeanor is determined, courageous and self-confident. Compared to her mother, Ibsen gives her features with masculine connotations : “ If only I could poke this uncle by the collar. "

Eilif and Morten, his sons

Eilif, 13, and Morten, 10, don't like going to school and are therefore happy when their father decides to give them private lessons with Petra. They should be brought up to be free, noble men. They have the prerequisite for this: curiosity.
Morten is a cheerful, adventurous boy. In school he learned that work is a punishment for his own sins, which is why he doesn't want to work later. Morten, although he is the youngest, behaves bravely and questions everything like a scientist: “ But what will we do when we have become free and distinguished men? "Or:" May we then [as Gentiles ] do anything we want? "
Eilif is rather reserved and thoughtful, but sometimes oversteps the limits set by adults. He thinks his younger brother is stupid because he sees work as a punishment for sins committed. " Pah! How stupid you are to believe such a thing. “His father suspects him of“ munching a cigar every now and then ”.

Morten Kiil

When Kathrine Stockmann's foster father Morten Kiil heard of Thomas' discovery, he immediately came to find out more, after all, his environmentally harmful tannery is the main cause of the water poisoning.

He is suspicious and sees ambushes everywhere: “ Nobody should be trusted; before you know it, you are duped ”. Having become rich through the family business, he still claims the opposite: “ I don't have the money that big either. “As a former board member of the city council, he was influential. He is still bitter about his exclusion. “ They voted me out like a dog, the people! But now they're getting their fat. “In order to get revenge, he incites his son-in-law to put the current authorities“ properly ”into it. “ If you [Thomas] can get the governor and his friends into trouble, then I'll give a hundred crowns for the poor on the spot. "

The old loner (old " badger ") wants to keep his good name and reputation, which he sees badly damaged by the publication of the doctor. He “ wants to live and die as a clean person ”.

To do this, he uses unscrupulous methods. Speculating on Thomas' self-interest, he buys all the bathing stocks cheaply, which have become almost worthless after the scandal has been exposed. In this insidious way he wants to get his son-in-law to publicly retract it. After that, the prices of the papers would rise again and the family inheritance would be secured. He gives the dignitaries the impression that Thomas acted selfishly and insidiously for financial reasons.

Morten Kiil's thoughts and actions are determined by money and the power based on it. He seems inaccessible, self-centered and confident. He chooses his means carefully without scruples so that he maintains the appearance of decency.

Captain Horster

The ship's captain is wealthy by inheritance. “ The big house of my blessed father is as good as empty; on the ground floor is a huge dining room - “; he makes this available to Thomas for his revelation and thus decides in favor of the "truth".

In contrast to the Stockmann family, he lives rather modestly. He regularly travels from Norway to America. Although depicted as introverted - his role only includes a small amount of speaking - he appears open and acts courageously. He is a loyal, generous friend of the Stockmann family and shows compassion when public opinion turns against them - " I just wanted to come over here and see how things are going ". He bravely brings the Stockmanns safely through the angry crowd to their house. He even wants to take Thomas and his family to America on his ship so that they can escape from the agitated crowd.

His altruism also becomes clear when he is fired because of Thomas: “ Don't take it to heart any longer; I can already find a job with some foreign shipping company. "

Horster stays away from the political affairs of the spa because he doesn't understand " something like that ". As Billing explains, everyone should be at the wheel, i. H. participate in elections, the captain replies that this may be appropriate on the mainland, “ but it would not go well on board. “He differs from the citizens in his profession and attitude. Peter Stockmann explains this as follows: “ Seafarers are like migratory birds; they feel at home in the north and south. "

The "People's Messenger"

Hovstad

Hovstad is the authoritative editor of the “Volksbote”, the spa’s only local newspaper. He comes from a low-ranking farming family and is proud of the fact that he is “deeply rooted in the lower classes” . His work as a journalist is associated with considerable social advancement. The paper is considered politically independent, progressive and free-thinking. Hovstad claims to be steadfast in advocating these ideals. It is " not a weather vane - and never will be ".
The editor initially enthusiastically welcomed the revelations made by the spa doctor and wanted - ostensibly committed to freedom and progress - to report openly on the water contamination with the aim of persuading the authorities to turn back. However, a strong, initially hidden motive is his affection for Petra, whose favor he tries to win through his father. When he became aware of the balance of power, however, and Petra rejected his advances, he abruptly changed his position opportunistically and adjusted his reporting to the general will of society, which was shaped by economic interests. “ Politics is the main thing in life - or at least for a newspaper; and if people are to follow me to freedom and progress, I must not scare them off ”. By taking the side of the currently “closed majority”, he hopes to secure his position and reputation.

Billing

Billing, an employee of the “Volksbote”, appears as a decent citizen and democrat. He goes to vote on principle and is shocked by Horster's stance not to bother about public affairs. At least one should vote because “ Society is like a ship. All men have to take part in the rudder. "
He often takes the opinion of his superior Hovstadt or agrees with him: “ Very correct. "Enthusiastic and emotional, he is combative and uses similarly drastic expressions as Doctor Stockmann:" War to the knife, I want to hope! The knife to the throat [...] ! "He underscores his expressions of opinion with curses and slang metaphors:" That is, God damn me, clear as dumpling broth! “His brisk demeanor against the spa administration is offset by his lack of power and influence in the community. Although he knows that he has little chance of being accepted, he has applied for the post of secretary at the magistrate without informing Hovstdad. “ Such a setback fuels the courage to fight; - you get a supply of fresh bile, so to speak, and that's really necessary in such a crowing corner as here, where something really exciting happens so rarely. "In Billings simple view of the world, there are only good and evil, directed and sanctioned by a" supernatural [n] power ".

Aslaksen

As the chairman of the homeowners' association, Aslaksen is the representative of the petty bourgeoisie, representing “the closed, compact majority” and occupying a “ position of power ”. In addition, as a printer he is the financier of the Volksbote , which “credits typesetting , printing and paper ” to the editor Hovstad and thus has an influence on the reporting. He describes himself as a “ peaceful ”, “level-headed and docile citizen. “He absolutely wants to prevent an“ insult to the authorities ”. The mayor describes him as a man of the (political) middle.
First Aslaksen took the doctor's side and - in contrast to Hovstad and Billing - immediately took the initiative to organize citizenship. When he sees the economic interests of his clientele endangered, he supports the mayor just as effectively. He always urges moderation as the “ first civic duty ”. In order to second the mayor in manipulating the crowd, he takes over the leadership of the meeting, which Dr. Stockmann convened to inform the citizens. “ When the trust of my fellow citizens calls me, I can't say no - clapping hands and applause. “It is the moderate citizen Aslaksen who has the spa doctor chosen as an enemy of the people and thus surrenders him to the angry crowd.

The citizenship

The citizens appear as an audience at the popular assembly in act 4. It forms the “ compact ” or “ closed majority ”. The people generally take part in all meetings. Citizens are also present who are completely uninformed: “ Tell me, what's going on here today? “As a precaution, the crowd is equipped with a whistle and horn. She is ready to protest and violence.

The people present were manipulated by the mayor in advance through the “Volksbote”: “ Yes, this time he [the spa doctor] must be really wrong, because neither the homeowners association nor the citizens' club wanted to lend him their hall. "Your political opinions are shaped by the press and decision-makers:" Just follow the printer Aslaksen and do what he does; “Such a citizen. The crowd is subject to peer pressure, adapts to the authorities, because they are afraid of free action or their own expression of opinion: “ Who should you actually deal with in this matter? “Hovstad is scandalous when he calls himself a“ free thinker ”.

The health resort

The spa town on the southern coast of Norway is the setting for this drama. The Stadvogt describes the small town as follows: “ On the whole, there is a beautiful spirit of compatibility ”. There is a “ sense of citizenship as it should be ”. The big, new, splendid spa is “ a big, common matter ” around which everyone “can rally. "It forms the financial" source of life of the city "and brings the place a" huge boom "(" House and property are increasing in value "and" The burden of the poor has decreased to a gratifying degree for the possessing classes ")," Money among the people " and thus “ life and movement. "

In contrast, Dr. Thomas Stockmann, supported by his daughter, is a society that is poisoned by “ majority truths ” - false, metaphorically “ rancid, corrupt, newly salted ” truths. The future of the city is based “ on a muddy floor of lies and deceit. "The reason for the demoralization of urban culture is" the dumbing down, the poverty, the wretchedness of living conditions ", whereby the" ability to think and act morally "has been lost.

Interpretative approaches

According to Rüdiger Bernhardt (2010), the drama Ein Volksfeind was Ibsen's reaction to the fierce criticism that his previously published works Nora or Ein Puppenheim und Gespenster had received. In the play the author shows that popular movements are not always determined by common attitudes and goals, but - when manipulated - appear like the expression of a popular opinion (3rd and 4th act). Truth and freedom are central themes of the play, and their meaning is not immutable but evolving; the lines between truth and lies are fluid.

In 2009, Christine Mersiowsky highlighted “social criticism as a central theme of the drama”. Following Horst Bien (1970), she describes Ibsen’s “last social drama” as “uncompromising proclamation of truth” against contemporary bourgeois democracy. This assessment was based on the fundamental criticism of ghosts , not only, as expected, from the conservative side, but to Ibsen's surprise also from the liberal side.

Translations into German

The first of several translations into German comes from the linguist and translator Wilhelm Lange (Berlin) in 1883 and was published by Reclam-Verlag. The Germanist and dramaturge Heiner Gimmler obtained another translation in 1989. The spelling of the name Thomas or Tomas differs depending on the translation and the commentary referring to it.

Literary adaptation of the drama

In 1951, the American writer Arthur Miller brought out a version of the play that was revised for his time.

Further edits and adaptations

In 2019 the Salzburg State Theater brought out a modernized version by director Amélie Niermeyer , Frank Max Müller and Thomas Huber under the title Die Volksfeindin . This is based on the translation by Angelika Gundlach . Dr. Stockmann is a woman with the first name Katrine (originally the name of Dr. Stockmann's wife) and was played by Juliane Köhler .

Film adaptations

literature

Reading aids

  • Rüdiger Bernhardt : Henrik Ibsen: "An enemy of the people." König's Explanations and Materials , 411. C. Bange Verlag , 2010, ISBN 978-3-8044-1752-6 .
  • Henrik Ibsen: An enemy of the people. AbiBox German, text box. Brinkmann-Meyhöfer, Hannover 2010 (Lower Saxony edition) Without ISBN, only text
  • Christine Mersiowsky (editing): Henrik Ibsen. An enemy of the people. Play in five acts. (Easy to read. Lesson models, upper secondary school). Ed .: Johannes Diekhans, Schöningh-Verlag (Westermann), Braunschweig 2009, ISBN 978-3-14-022474-1 .
  • Peter Kramer: Henrik Ibsen, "Ein Volksfeind" and " Die Wildente ". The change in the dramatic structure and personality image in their significance for education and teaching. Peter Lang, Bern 1985, ISBN 3-261-04029-7 .
  • Günther Braun: "An enemy of the people". In: Kurt Bräutigam (Ed.): European comedies. Represented on individual interpretations. Moritz Diesterweg, Frankfurt 1964, pp. 99-125

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Wilhelm Hans: Ibsen's self-portrait in his dramas. CH Beck, Munich 4th ed. 1911, p. 117, in relation to ghosts .
  2. ↑ Subject German. Teaching model. Henrik Ibsen: An enemy of the people . Developed by Christine Mersiowsky. Braunschweig / Paderborn / Darmstadt 2009, pp. 71, 73; there quotes from Horst Bien: Henrik Ibsen's Realism. On the genesis and method of classical realistic drama . Berlin 1970, p. 13
  3. ↑ An enemy of the people . AbiBox German. Text book for the student workbook Knowledge and Responsibility . Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein, Brinkmann-Meyhöfer Verlag, Hannover 2010, p. 114, Zn. 3279–3283.
  4. ↑ Marion Siems: Reclam's new actor. Stuttgart 2005, updated and expanded 2010, p. 280.
  5. ↑ Subject German. Teaching model. Henrik Ibsen: An enemy of the people . Developed by Christine Mersiowsky. Braunschweig / Paderborn / Darmstadt 2009, pp. 71, 73; there quotes from Horst Bien: Henrik Ibsen's Realism. On the genesis and method of classical realistic drama . Berlin 1970, pp. 9f, 81f, 156
  6. ↑ backward place
  7. ↑ For the entire section on actors and location : Subject German. Teaching model. Henrik Ibsen: An enemy of the people . Developed by Christine Mersiowsky. Braunschweig / Paderborn / Darmstadt 2009, pp. 17–22, 29–31, 40f, 44–50, 89
  8. ^ Bernhardt: Enemy of the People. (King's Explanations, Vol. 411). P. 93 f.
  9. ↑ Subject German. Teaching model. Henrik Ibsen: An enemy of the people . Developed by Christine Mersiowsky. Braunschweig / Paderborn / Darmstadt 2009, p. 51, there quotes from Horst Bien: Henrik Ibsen's Realism. On the genesis and method of classical realistic drama . Berlin 1970, p. 227f
  10. ↑ The enemy of the people . Salzburg State Theater. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
  • ( V ) Henrik Ibsen : An enemy of the people. AbiBox German. Text box. Brinkmann-Meyhöfer, Hanover 2010.
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  11. ↑ pp. 47-49, Zn. 1259-1310.
  12. ↑ pp. 49-60, 1311-1650.
  13. ↑ p. 66, Zn. 1827-1829. (Paragraph: pp. 60–66, 1651–1837.)
  14. ↑ p. 73, Zn. 2038-2039.
  15. ↑ pp. 67-74, Zn. 1838-2053.
  16. ↑ pp. 74-77, Zn. 2054-2160.
  17. ↑ pp. 77-82, Zn. 2164-2323.
  18. ↑ pp. 82-99, Zn. 2324-2826.
  19. ↑ p. 98, Zn. 2791-2809.
  20. ↑ pp. 101-104, Zn. 2860-2961.
  21. ↑ pp. 104-110, Zn. 2962-3146.
  22. ↑ p. 111, Zn. 3170-3173.
  23. ↑ p. 114, Zn. 3279-3283.
  24. ↑ pp. 115-116, Zn. 3313-3316.
  25. ↑ p. 115, Zn. 3302-3304.
  26. ↑ p. 116, Zn. 3338-3341.
  27. ↑ p. 117, Zn. 3346.
  28. ↑ p. 117, Zn. 3346-3347.
  29. ↑ p. 117, Zn. 3352.
  30. ↑ p. 117, Zn. 3355-3356.
  31. ↑ p. 115, Zn. 3305-3310.
  32. ↑ p. 122, Zn. 3511-3517.
  33. ↑ pp. 110-123, Zn. 3147-3562.
  34. ↑ p. 44, Zn. 1172.
  35. ↑ pp. 124-129, Zn. 3563-3725.
  36. ↑ pp. 130-133, Zn. 3726-3829.
  37. ↑ pp. 139-140, Zn. 4030-4034.
  38. ↑ p. 131, Zn. 3754-3767.
  39. ↑ pp. 133-134, Zn. 3834-3877.
  40. ↑ pp. 137-138, Zn. 3947-3988.
  41. ↑ p. 135, Zn. 3882.
  42. ↑ pp. 133-142, Zn. 3834-4093.
  43. ↑ p. 144, Zn. 4160-4161.
  44. ↑ pp. 142-148, Zn. 4095-4305.
  45. ↑ pp. 156-157, Zn. 4550-4555.
  46. ↑ p. 160, Zn. 4653-4654. (Paragraph: pp. 149–160, Zn. 4306–4658.)
  47. ↑ p. 13, Zn. 233-235.
  48. ↑ p. 15, Zn. 287.
  49. ↑ p. 40, Zn. 1048 .; P. 41, No. 1083.
  50. ↑ p. 44, Zn. 1155-1158.
  51. ↑ p. 151, Zn. 4397.
  52. ↑ p. 14, Zn. 263.
  53. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1520-1567.
  54. ↑ p. 65, Zn. 1808.
  55. ↑ p. 14, Zn. 242-244.
  56. ↑ p. 13, Zn. 233.
  57. ↑ p. 15, Zn. 298-303.
  58. ↑ p. 12, lines 184-204.
  59. ↑ p. 63, Zn. 1730-1738 .; Pp. 153-154, paras. 4446-4475.
  60. ↑ p. 44, Zn. 1158.
  61. ↑ p. 56, Zn. 1538-1539.
  62. ↑ p. 58, Zn. 1585-1586.
  63. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1564.
  64. ↑ p. 116, Zn. 3333.
  65. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1557–1559.
  66. ↑ p. 99, Zn. 2822-2823.
  67. ↑ p. 148, Zn. 4289-4290.
  68. ↑ p. 32, Zn. 809.
  69. ↑ p. 52, Zn. 1393-1398.
  70. ↑ p. 99, Zn. 2830-2831.
  71. ↑ p. 56, Zn. 1539-1542.
  72. ↑ p. 8, Zn. 75-77.
  73. ↑ p. 93, Zn. 2637.
  74. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1543-1545.
  75. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1569-1571.
  76. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1572.
  77. ↑ p. 50, Zn. 1342-1349.
  78. ↑ pp. 54–55, Zn. 1479–1486.
  79. ↑ p. 73, Zn. 2028-2031.
  80. ↑ p. 60, Zn. 1637-1640.
  81. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1547-1549.
  82. ↑ p. 18, Zn. 393-395.
  83. ↑ p. 56, Zn. 1526-1527.
  84. ↑ p. 11, no. 160.
  85. ↑ p. 94, Zn. 2680-2686.
  86. ↑ p. 16, no. 331.
  87. ↑ p. 60, Zn. 1647.
  88. ↑ p. 55, Zn. 1488-1489.
  89. ↑ p. 56, Zn. 1533-1534.
  90. ↑ p. 59, Zn. 1625-1629.
  91. ↑ p. 17, Zn. 346-348.
  92. ↑ pp. 121-122, Zn. 3491-3507.
  93. ↑ p. 11, numbers 172-173.
  94. ↑ p. 17, no. 338.
  95. ↑ p. 7, no. 51.
  96. ↑ p. 17, no. 336.
  97. ↑ pp. 83-89, Zn. 2342-2524.
  98. ↑ p. 141, Zn. 4084.
  99. ↑ p. 56, Zn. 1527-1529.
  100. ↑ p. 141, Zn. 4068.
  101. ↑ p. 9, Zn. 105-108., 112-115.
  102. ↑ p. 9, numbers 91-92.
  103. ↑ p. 9, lines 93-94.
  104. ↑ p. 40, Zn. 1048 .; P. 41, No. 1083.
  105. ↑ pp. 140-141, Zn. 4054-4063.
  106. ↑ p. 57, Zn. 1568-1573.
  107. ↑ p. 11, Zn. 159-160.
  108. ↑ p. 10, numbers 148-149.
  109. ↑ p. 58, Zn. 1576-1578.
  110. ↑ p. 31, Zn. 766-786.
  111. ↑ p. 55, Zn. 1485.
  112. ↑ p. 15, Zn. 287.
  113. ↑ p. 57, Zn, 1547-1549.
  114. ↑ p. 12, lines 203-204.
  115. ↑ p. 19, Zn. 406.
  116. ↑ p. 99, Zn. 2824-2826.
  117. ↑ p. 63, Zn. 1756-1758.
  118. ↑ p. 25, Zn. 579-581.
  119. ↑ p. 62, Zn. 1703.
  120. ↑ pp. 93-94, Zn. 2666-2668.
  121. ↑ p. 19, Zn. 419.
  122. ↑ p. 51, Zn. 1373.
  123. ↑ p. 97, Zn. 2785.
  124. ↑ p. 92, Zn. 2633.
  125. ↑ p. 65, Zn. 1808-1810.
  126. ↑ p. 65, Zn. 1792-1793.
  127. ↑ p. 154, Zn. 4477.
  128. ↑ p. 104, Zn. 2956.
  129. ↑ p. 66, Zn. 1832.
  130. ↑ p. 11, no. 175.
  131. ↑ p. 36, no. 874.
  132. ↑ p. 63, Zn. 1732.
  133. ↑ p. 25, Zn. 596-599.
  134. ↑ p. 26, Zn. 616-621.
  135. ↑ pp. 80-82, Zn. 2249-2300.
  136. ↑ p. 81, Zn. 2268.
  137. ↑ p. 81, Zn. 2268-2269.
  138. ↑ p. 79, Zn. 2221-2223.
  139. ↑ p. 82, Zn. 2314.
  140. ↑ p. 50, Zn. 1347.
  141. ↑ p. 62, Zn. 1699-1701.
  142. ↑ p. 60, Zn. 1660.
  143. ↑ p. 65, Zn. 1795.
  144. ↑ p. 78, Zn. 2183-2187.
  145. ↑ p. 21, Zn. 479-481 .; P. 23, Zn. 522-541.
  146. ↑ p. 60, Zn. 1651-1652.
  147. ↑ p. 63, Zn. 1746.
  148. ↑ p. 5.
  149. ↑ p. 25, No. 583.
  150. ↑ p. 158, Zn. 4593-4609.
  151. ↑ p. 33, no. 839 .; P. 66, Zn. 1835.
  152. ↑ p. 23, Zn. 542-548.
  153. ^ P. 159, Zn. 4625-4627.
  154. ↑ p. 24, Zn. 575-576.
  155. ↑ p. 24, Zn. 549-550.
  156. ↑ p. 19, Zn. 412-413.
  157. ↑ pp. 35-37, Zn. 887-938.
  158. ↑ p. 146, Zn. 4219-4220.
  159. ↑ p. 36, Zn. 905-906.
  160. ↑ p. 38, Zn. 966.
  161. ↑ p. 37, Zn. 954-955.
  162. ↑ p. 37, Zn. 955.
  163. ↑ pp. 37-38, Zn. 960-962.
  164. ↑ p. 76, Zn. 2133-2134.
  165. ↑ p. 146, Zn. 4226-4230.
  166. ↑ p. 146, Zn. 4230.
  167. ↑ pp. 145-148, Zn. 4193-4305.
  168. ↑ p. 26, Zn. 612-615.
  169. ↑ p. 135, Zn. 3890.
  170. ↑ p. 103, Zn. 2934.
  171. ↑ p. 135, Zn. 3897-3899.
  172. ↑ pp. 136-137, Zn. 3938-3945.
  173. ↑ p. 137, Zn. 3957-3959.
  174. ↑ p. 20, Zn. 434-442.
  175. ↑ p. 20, Zn. 446-448.
  176. ↑ p. 20, Zn. 449-456.
  177. ↑ p. 20, Zn. 455-456.
  178. ↑ p. 42, Zn. 1105 .; P. 121, Zn. 3481-3484.
  179. ↑ p. 121, Zn. 3483-3484.
  180. ↑ p. 119, Zn. 3426-3434.
  181. ↑ p. 75, Zn. 2097.
  182. ↑ p. 81, Zn. 2277-2293.
  183. ↑ p. 79, Zn. 2214-2217. (Quotation), Zn. 2205-2220., P. 89, Zn. 2522.
  184. ↑ p. 20, Zn. 427-445.
  185. ↑ p. 67, Zn. 1863.
  186. ↑ p. 69, Zn. 1912.
  187. ↑ p. 68, Zn. 1894.
  188. ↑ p. 77, Zn. 2151-2155.
  189. ↑ p. 78, Zn. 2200-2203.
  190. ↑ p. 45, Zn. 1150-1154.
  191. ↑ p. 45, Zn. 1194.
  192. ↑ p. 76, Zn. 2122.
  193. ↑ p. 45, Zn. 1192-1193.
  194. ↑ p. 46, no. 1214.
  195. ↑ p. 105, Zn. 2986-2990.
  196. ↑ p. 44, Zn. 1172.
  197. ↑ p. 46, no. 1214.
  198. ↑ p. 114, Zn. 3282.
  199. ↑ p. 114, Zn. 3282.
  200. ↑ p. 101, Zn. 2875.
  201. ↑ p. 101, Zn. 2886.
  202. ↑ p. 101, Zn. 2876-2882.
  203. ↑ p. 128, Zn. 3714.
  204. ↑ p. 102, Zn. 2895.
  205. ↑ p. 102, Zn. 2896-2898.
  206. ↑ pp. 2906-2907.
  207. ↑ p. 102, Zn. 2904.
  208. ↑ p. 119, Zn. 3422.
  209. ↑ p. 5.
  210. ↑ p. 9, numbers 91-92.
  211. ↑ p. 9, Zn. 92.
  212. ↑ p. 9, Zn. 93.
  213. ↑ p. 9, lines 93-94.
  214. ↑ p. 9, No. 100.
  215. ↑ p. 9, Zn. 105.
  216. ↑ p. 9, No. 107.
  217. ↑ p. 9, numbers 112-113.
  218. ↑ p. 9, Zn. 106.
  219. ↑ p. 9, numbers 106-107.
  220. ↑ p. 25, Zn. 596-599.
  221. ↑ p. 117, Zn. 3352.
  222. ↑ p. 117, Zn. 3354.
  223. ↑ p. 123, Zn. 3542.
  224. ↑ p. 123, Zn. 3532-3533.
  225. ↑ p. 123, Zn. 3548.