Conversion (Judaism)

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Naomi asks Ruth and Orpa to return to Moab . William Blake , 1795

Conversion or conversion to Judaism ( Hebrew גיור gijur ) is a formal act taken by a non-Jewish person in order to be recognized as a full member of a Jewish community. Conversion usually consists of a series of religious acts and studies, including expressing connection with the Jewish people and sometimes with Eretz Israel . Sometimes the conversion is done to dispel doubts about the religion of a person who wants to be recognized as a Jew.

The process depends in detail on the original religion and the special preconditions for this religion or the lack of a religion. Without a formal Orthodox conversion, many Orthodox Jews will not recognize their conversion.

Numbers 6: 3-10 of the Pentateuch of the British Library (Oriental MS. 1,497) from the 12th century. The lines of the Pentateuch alternate with the Targum , which is attributed to Onkelos, a Jewish convert

In some cases, someone will not formally convert but will adopt some or all of the beliefs and practices of Judaism. Even so, devout Jews will reject this conversion and will not recognize the person in question as Jewish. Some groups have adopted Jewish customs and practices. In Russia, for example, this applies to the Subbotniki , who have adopted most aspects of Jewish life without formal conversion. If Subbotniki want to marry into a traditional Jewish family or emigrate to Israel, they have to go through a formal conversion.

Technical terms

A convert is called a גר ger (plural gerim ), a convert asגיורת gijoret . The word is related to " proselyte " which comes from the Septuagint . In Karaite Judaism, a ger is a non-Jew who has not yet completed the conversion. After the conversion, the term Ger is no longer used, the newcomer is Jewish like everyone else.

The word ger comes from the verbלגור lagur , which means “to live” or “to stay with”. The Bible ger as a stranger or a sojourner understood. Rabbi Marc Angel writes:

“The Hebrew ger (translated as 'proselyte' in post-biblical times) literally means 'inhabitant' and refers to non-Israelites who lived within the Israelite community. The Torah's call to treat the ger fairly and with compassion concerns these 'residents'. The rabbinical tradition interpreted the word ger as a designation for proselytes ... "

Angel's explanation of the meaning of the word can be substantiated by biblical verses such as Lev 19:34  OT :

“The stranger who stays with you should be regarded as a native to you and you should love him like yourself; for you yourself were strangers in Egypt. I am the Lord, your God."

The Jews in Egypt were not converts, but foreigners. Another important passage relates to non-Jewish prisoners who could be forced into marriage, Deut. 21, 10-14. Another verse is Esther 8:17, but no procedure is presented.

In the Talmud , ger is used with two meanings: Ger tzedek is the “rightful convert”, a Jewish proselyte, while ger toshav is a non-Jewish resident of the country, “who observed the Seven Noahid Commandments and gave up idolatry”. In modern Hebrew, ger means Jewish convert.

Overview

According to Maimonides ( Issurei Biah 13:14), converts have been accepted since the beginning of Jewish history, with the foreign wives of the leaders such as Samson and Solomon being converts. However, he points out ( Issurei Biah 13:15) that in the time of Kings David and Solomon Bateen Dinim (Jewish courts) did not accept converts who may not have had right intent. They had to wait and prove their intentions until they were legitimately accepted.

With the notable exception of a few Syrian communities, most notably in Brooklyn, New York, and Deal, New Jersey, all major forms of the Jewish faith are now open to serious converts, with the rules of admission to and from that particular Jewish denomination.

For rabbinic Judaism , the laws of conversion are based ( gerut ) on codes and texts including the Talmud, including the Shulchan Aruch and other subsequent interpretations. Many of the guidelines are based on the Book of Ruth and the way Ruth was introduced to the ward through her mother-in-law, Naomi. The rules are considered binding by Orthodox and Conservative Judaism . The law is often viewed as advising against proselytizing, and the gerut is also somewhat daunting. In the past, rabbis often rejected applicants for conversion three times, and only if they persisted in their desire were they eventually allowed to convert.

Only after conviction of the serious intentions is the candidate brought before a halachically established religious court, which must consist of three dayanim (judges), the beth din (“religious court”). After a successful check, the convert receives the Shtar geirut ("conversion certificate ").

The Conservative Judaism accepts the application of halachic rules are not as strict as the modern Orthodox Judaism. The formal application of the rules appears to be more important than the reputation of the parties involved or the nature of the obligations. Accordingly, some conversions of Reform Judaism or Reconstructionism are also recognized, but only if they include immersion in a ritual bath ( mikvah ), appearing before a rabbinical court ( beit din ) and male circumcision ( brit milah ) or a symbolic one Type of circumcision for men who have already been circumcised. ( hatafat dam brit .)

The requirements for Reform Judaism are different. Here it is required that one study Jewish theology, rituals, history, culture and customs and integrate Jewish behavior into everyday life. In addition to this very different form of study, participation in church services and community life is expected.

Children must be at least 12 (girls) or 13 years (boys) as a prerequisite for conversion. In the case of earlier admission to the religious community through adoption or conversion of the parents, the children of religious age must give their consent retrospectively. This regulation applies to both Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, both of whom regard the Halacha as binding.

The rekonstruktionistische Judaism emphasizes the symbolic meaning of the ritual. The prescribed study program includes history, beliefs and religious behavior to comply with religious laws. A ritual immersion, circumcision or hatafat dam brit (a symbolic drop of blood) if there is no particular physical or mental hazard; Finally, a Bet Din (a conversation with two professionally educated Jews, at least one of whom must be a rabbi), often accompanied by a public reception and welcome ceremony.

The Karaite Judaism does not accept rabbinic Judaism and requires other types of shooting conditions. Traditionally directed against conversion, Karaite Judaism recently gave up its rejection. On August 1, 2007, Karaites accepted converts into their ranks for the first time in 500 years. At a ceremony at their synagogue in Northern California, 10 adults and 4 minors swore an oath of allegiance after completing year-round study. The conversion happened 15 years after the decision of the Karaite Wisdom Council to lift the centuries-old ban.

Requirements

The Amora'im , who produced the Talmud , set three provisions for conversion (Keritot 8b) which must be witnessed and confirmed by a beth din hedyot . This court must consist of three male Jews over the age of 13 who do not necessarily have to be rabbis:

The consensus of halachic authorities also requires an understanding of the duties of classical religious law. This is not expressly stated in the Talmud, but in the following comments.

After confirming that all requirements have been met, the beth din issues a Shtar Giur , a conversion certificate .

Early discussion about circumcision

The Jewish Encyclopedia article on the circumcision of proselytes states that in the 1st century BC u. Z., i.e. before the Mishnah was adopted , circumcision was discussed between Zealots and liberal groups. R. Joshua called for immersion in the mikveh . R. Eliezer calls for circumcision. A similar controversy between Shammaites and Hillelites concerns proselytes who have no foreskin from birth: the former demand a symbolic drop of blood so that the candidate can become part of the covenant through the symbolic Brit Milah; The latter consider this unnecessary.

There was also talk of the need for men born to Jewish mothers to accommodate the need for converts to be circumcised. The Midrash states: “If your sons accept my deity [by being circumcised], I will be their God and lead them into the land; but if they disregard my covenant regarding circumcision or the Sabbath, they should not enter the promised land ”(Midrash Genesis Rabbah xlvi). “The Sabbath-keepers who are not circumcised are intruders, and deserve punishment,” (Midrash Genesis. Rabbah xIvi). “Those who keep the Sabbath, who are not circumcised, are intruders and deserve punishment” (Midrash, Deut. Rabbah i).

The opposite view of things is represented in the Babylonian Talmud : "A male convert who has gone into hiding but not circumcised is a (valid) convert."

In his Jewish Antiquities 20.2, Flavius ​​Josephus reports the story of King Izates of Adiabene , who decided to follow the law of Moses as advised by a Jewish trader named Ananias. When he tried to be circumcised, his mother, who followed Jewish customs herself, advised against it because his subjects would not accept being ruled by someone who followed such "strange and foreign" rites. Ananias also advised against it because the worship and worship of God is more important than circumcision. ( Robert Eisenman claims in James the Brother of Jesus that Ananias was Paul of Tarsus , who held similar views; this novel interpretation finds no support in the majority intervention) and that God would forgive him for the fear of his subjects. So Izates decided against it. Later, however, came “another Jew from Galilee, Eleazer” who was well acquainted with the law. He convinced him that laws should not only be understood but also applied, which is why Izates did this. When Helen and Ananias saw it, they were terrified of the possible consequences, but, as Josephus depicts, God provided for Izates. His reign was peaceful and blessed, Helen went to the temple to thank him and, as there was a famine there, brought a lot of food and aid to the people of Jerusalem.

Modern practices

The requirements are different, so that mutual recognition between different faiths is difficult. Orthodox reject the conversion to non-orthodox directions. With regard to the conservatives, the leaning is less in the rites, which are very similar, but in questions of adequate training by qualified teachers.

In general, immersion in the mikveh is an important part of the tradition. If the person is male, circumcision is an essential part of it. If the person has already been circumcised, the blood drop ritual takes place ( hatafat dam brit ). More liberal tendencies have less rigid requirements for immersion and circumcision.

Religious maturity

At the age of 12 (girls) or 13 years (boys) young people can revoke their conversion.

Reform Jewish view

Reform Judaism in the US rejects the idea that there are necessary rules or rituals for conversion. At the end of the 19th century, the Central Conference of American Rabbis, the official representative of the American Reformed rabbis, decided to allow the admission of converts “without any initiation rites, ceremonies or rules”.

Despite frequent criticism from reform rabbis, this decision is still the official guideline. (CCAR Responsa “Circumcision for an Eight-Year-Old Convert” 5756.13 and Solomon Bennett Freehof , Reform Responsa for Our Time , no. 15.) So here is a Immersion or circumcision is not required, and neither is mitzvot . The Beth Din Rabbi Court is also recommended, but not considered essential. Converts are encouraged to follow the norms of the religious life of their community.

In the specific case, the admission conditions are determined by the respective rabbi. As a rule, an introductory course on Judaism and participation in worship are recommended, as well as living “Jewish” for a while, but this depends on the individual rabbi. This is usually a year. When the rabbi thinks the time is ripe, a rabbinical court can be convened. Other rituals can also be determined by the rabbi.

Competing points of view

The Conservative Committee on Jewish Law and Standards has published a legal opinion that the recognition of a conversion requires that the minimum of halachic regulations of milah and t'vilah are observed, the rabbinical court decides and a conservative religious study has taken place. ( Proceedings of Committee on Jewish Law and Standards: 1980–1985. Pp. 77–101.)

In general, non-Orthodox conversions are viewed as inappropriate by parts of Orthodox Judaism. Conversely, however, conservative and reformed directions recognize the orthodox conversion. As of 2008, Haredic courts have denied conversions of other faiths, including some Orthodox conversions.

In 2008 Haredi courts canceled thousands of military rabbinate conversions in Israel. The Chief Rabbi Court of Israel, the only state-recognized authority, rejected this judgment with the support of Rabbi Ovadja Josef .

View of the Karaites

After 2006 the Moetzet Hakhamim (Council of Wise Men) began to accept converted Karaites through the Karaean Jewish University. The admission procedure requires a year of study, circumcision and Ruth's oath:

כִּי אֶל-אֲשֶׁר תֵּלְכִי אֵלֵךְ, וּבַאֲשֶׁר תָּלִינִי אָלִין – עַמֵּךְ עַמִּי, וֵאלֹהַיִךְ אֱלֹהָי. בַּאֲשֶׁר תָּמוּתִי אָמוּת, וְשָׁם אֶקָּבֵר; כֹּה יַעֲשֶׂה יְהוָה לִי, וְכֹה יוֹסִיף – כִּי הַמָּוֶת, יַפְרִיד בֵּינִי וּבֵינֵךְ.

   

- ( Ruth 1: 16-17, HE  EU )

“Wherever you go, I want to go too; where you stay, I stay there too. Your people are my people, and your God is my God. Wherever you die, there I die too, there I want to be buried too. The Lord do this and that to me, only death will part me and you. "

Attempts to clarify Jewish identity

1950s: Proposal for joint rabbinical courts

In the 1950s, Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik and other members of the American Rabbinical Council began negotiations with the leaders of the Conservative Rabbis Association, including Saul Lieberman ; Their goal was to found a joint Conservative Orthodox religious court that should set common standards for marriage and divorce. The model for this was the Israeli chief rabbinate, in which all judges are Orthodox, but which is recognized by most conservatives. Conservative rabbis in the Rabbinical Association created a joint conference on Jewish law .

The project failed. According to Rabbi Louis Bernstein, the main reason was the relentless Orthodox demand to expel conservative rabbis for acts they had committed prior to the establishment of the new court. The rabbinical assembly refused.

Also, according to Orthodox Rabbi Emanuel Rackman, former president of the RCA, the main reason for failure was the pressure exerted by the Haredic ultra-Orthodox. They considered any form of cooperation forbidden.

In 1956, Rabbi Harry Halpern of the Joint Conference wrote a report on the failure of the joint judgment. Once the agreements were concluded, the RCA would have called for severe sanctions to be imposed on conservative rabbis as a new condition. Halpern writes that the RA “could not agree to the discipline by an outside group”. Further efforts were thwarted by eleven Rosh Yeshivas, who forbade cooperation in circulars.

1978–1983: Denver Program, patrilineal ancestry

In Denver , Colorado , a joint Orthodox, Traditional, Conservative, and Reformed court was created to promote general standards for religious conversion. A number of rabbis were Orthodox and had a semicha of Orthodox yeshivot, but served in synagogues without a mechiza ; These synagogues were called "traditional Judaism". Over a period of five years, they made 750 conversions. In 1983, however, the joint court was dissolved because the unilateral reform community had decided to change the definition of "Jewishness".

In 1983, the Central Conference of American Rabbis passed a resolution outlining the need for conversion for anyone who had at least one Jewish parent who insisted on being a member of Judaism. In doing so, they parted with the traditional position, which called for formal conversion only for children without a Jewish mother. This resolution received a mixed reception from Jewish reform communities outside the USA. In Israel, the Israeli Movement for Progressive Judaism rejected patrilineal ancestry as a criterion and required formal conversion of any candidate without a Jewish mother. In 2015, however, the majority of the British Assembly of Reform Rabbis supported a program that proposed, “Individuals who lead Jewish lives and patrilineal Jews are admitted into the Jewish community and in an individual process as Jews Can be recognized. "The British Rabbis Association stated that rabbis" could make decisions on the spot - confirmed by a Beit Din - to confirm Jewish status. "

The end of the Beth Din joint program was welcomed by the Haredic Orthodox, who viewed the program as illegal. Haredic groups also tried to prevent non-Orthodox rabbis from using traditional practices through a mikvah. From a haredic point of view, no conversion is better than a non-orthodox one, as, in their view, this is not a true conversion.

1980s: Proposal for a joint Israeli beth din

In the 1980s, Orthodox Rabbi Norman Lamm , the Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshiva University , worked with other American and Israeli Orthodox rabbis to resolve the question of who was Jewish. In 1989 and 1990, Israeli Primer Yitzhak Shamir led efforts to resolve this issue.

The Israeli cabinet secretary Elyakim Rubenstein conducted months of secret negotiations with rabbis of all orientations, in which the faculty of Yeshiva University was also involved, with Lamm as Rosh Yeshiva acting. They planned to set up a joint committee to interview converts who wanted to emigrate to Israel in order to refer them to a court that would accept the candidate into the religious community according to the Halacha. The negotiating partners came to one result:

  1. Conversion procedures must correspond to the Halacha
  2. The beth din (rabbinical court) must be Orthodox, possibly appointed by the Israeli chief rabbinate.
  3. There must be a three-way dialogue.

Many reform rabbis were offended by the idea that the court should be strictly halachic and orthodox, but relented. When the project became public, however, some leading Haredi rabbis condemned the project as the "travesty of the Halacha". Rabbi Moshe Sherer , chairman of Agudath Israel , said, "Yes, we helped put an end to this farce, and I am proud of it." Norman Lamm condemned Sherer's interference, stating that it was the greatest harm Sherer in his 40-year career.

Rabbi Lamm saw this project as the beginning of a solution to the problem of Jewish disunity. Had his plan not been thwarted, he would have included the divorce problem to put an end to the problem of mamzerut .

1997: Neeman Commission proposal

In 1997 the issue of who was Jewish came up again in Israel, and Norman Lamm and others publicly supported the Neemann Commission, a group of Orthodox, Conservative and Reformed rabbis. In a 1997 speech at the World Council of Orthodox Leadership in Glen Springs, New York, Lamm urged Orthodox Jews to support these efforts.

Bnei Anusim

In the past few decades there has been a growing interest in converting to Judaism among the descendants of Jews who were forcibly converted to Christianity .

" Anusim " literally means "forced", "Bnei Anusim" means children of the forced.

In modern times, the most important group was that of the aforementioned Sephardin Bnei Anusim, which can be found in Spain and Portugal as well as Latin America. There is a steadily increasing number of converters in this group.

Since many Bnei Anusim (descendants of forced converts) lack a consistent Jewish matrilineal lineage or the corresponding documentation, conversion is an increasingly accepted possibility for them to return to Judaism.

See also

Secondary literature

  • Rabbi Steven Carr Reuben, Jennifer S. Hanin: Becoming Jewish: The Challenges, Rewards, and Paths to Conversion. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011 (Foreword by Bob Saget. An overview of Jewish conversion and all aspects of Jewish life related to it, including problems in family and friends if the decision is to be communicated).
  • Menachem Finkelstein: Conversion: halakhah and practice . Bar-Ilan University Press, Ramat Gan 2006, ISBN 965-226-325-7 (Hebrew ha-Giyur, halakhah u-ma ' ASEH . 1994. Translated by Edward Levin, comprehensive legal collection).
  • Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927-1970. Volume II, Ed. David Golinkin, The Rabbinical Assembly, 1997.
  • Norman Lamm: Seventy Faces: Divided we stand, but its time to try an idea that might help us stand taller. In: moment. Volume II, No. 6, June 1986 - Sivan 5746.
  • Moshe Lavee: The Tractae of Conversion. In: EAJS 4, 2010, pp. 169-213.
  • Moshe Lavee: Converting The Missionary Image of Abraham: Rabbinic Traditions Migrating from the Land of Israel to Babylon . In: Martin Goodman , Geurt Hendrik van Kooten, J. van Ruiten (eds.): Abraham, the nations, and the Hagarites Jewish, Christian, and Islamic perspectives on kinship with Abraham . Brill, Leiden / Boston 2010, ISBN 978-90-04-21649-5 , pp. 203-222 ( haifa.academia.edu ).
  • Joseph Soloveitchik: Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Jews in the United States: Second article in a series on Responsa of Orthodox Judaism in the United States. 1954.
  • Jack Wertheimer (Ed.): Tradition Renewed: A History of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Volume II. JTS, NY, 1997, pp. 450, 474.
  • Rabbi Josef Lifland: Converts and Conversion to Judaism. Gefen Publishing House, Jerusalem 2001, ISBN 965-229-235-4 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b The movements in Judaism. Conversion to Judaism Resource Center, accessed April 17, 2019 .
  2. ^ Russians and non-Russian - division - Jews. In: Russian Saturday! molokane.org, accessed July 4, 2016 (English / Russian).
  3. ^ The Plight of Subbotniks. In: Jewish Russian Telegraph. November 25, 2008, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  4. ↑ Eli'ezer ben Ephraim haKohen: Can a Ger become a Yisreeli? (PDF) on karaitejudaism.org.
  5. ^ Stranger. In: Bible Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 4, 2016 .
  6. ^ Marc D. Angel: Choosing to be Jewish. The Orthodox road to conversion . KTAV Pub. House, Jersey City, NJ 2005, ISBN 0-88125-890-3 .
  7. ↑ Ger Toshav - A Look at the Sources for Contemporary Application: A Proposal for intermarried and other Allies in our Midst. 7for70.com, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  8. ↑ Now and then: What is a ger in Judaism? In: about.com. June 11, 2009, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  9. ↑ Moments of Hisorerus - Kabbalas Hatorah at Three Landmark Flatbush Yeshivos. (No longer available online.) In: Flatbush Jewish Journal. May 13, 2010, archived from the original on July 9, 2015 ; Retrieved November 21, 2011 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.myvirtualpaper.com
  10. ↑ a b c BBC - Religion & Ethics - Converting to Judaism. Bbc.co.uk, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  11. ↑ Who is a Jew? - Art History Online Reference and Guide. In: arthistoryclub.com. Arthistoryclub.com, January 29, 2012, archived from the original on September 27, 2011 ; Retrieved July 21, 2012 .
  12. ↑ George Robinson: Essential Judaism. A complete guide to beliefs, customs, and rituals . Pocket Books, New York 2000, ISBN 0-671-03480-4 , pp. 229-232 .
  13. ↑ Section 2.3. Who We Are: What is Conservative Judaism? (No longer available online.) Shamash.org, archived from the original on October 18, 1996 ; Retrieved July 4, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.shamash.org
  14. ↑ FAQs on Reconstructionist Approaches to Jewish Ideas and Practices. In: jewishrecon.org. Jewish Reconstructionist Community, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  15. ↑ Karaites hold first conversion in 500 years. August 2, 2007, JTA Breaking News.
  16. ↑ Conversion. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  17. ^ Emil G. Hirsch, Kaufmann Kohler, Joseph Jacobs, Aaron Friedenwald, Isaac Broydé: Circumcision. In: Jewish Encyclopedia. jewishencyclopedia.com, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  18. ↑ Gershon Winkler: Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 135a and Gerim 2: 2. In: The way of the boundary crosser. An introduction to Jewish Flexidoxy . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, Md. 2005, ISBN 0-7425-4510-5 , pp. 214-219 .
  19. ↑ Gershon Winkler: Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 46a and Gerim 1: 6. In: The way of the boundary crosser. An introduction to Jewish Flexidoxy . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, Md. 2005, ISBN 0-7425-4510-5 , pp. 214-219 .
  20. ^ F. Josephus: CHAPTER 2. In: Antiquities of the Jews. 20th
  21. ^ The conversion process. Conversion to Judaism Resource Center, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  22. ^ Converting infants or children to Judaism. Conversion to Judaism Resource Center, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  23. ↑ CCAR Yearbook 3 (1893), 73-95; American Reform Responsa (ARR), number. 68, 236-237
  24. ↑ a b Choosing Judaism. reformjudaism.org, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  25. ↑ Radhika Sanghani: Zooey Deschanel is Jewish. These three women changed their religions for love too . In: The Telegraph . November 10, 2015 (English, telegraph.co.uk [accessed on July 4, 2016]): “Julie Gray, Zara Gluch and Hannah Martin all converted religions after falling in love”
  26. ^ Thousands of conversions questioned. Israel Jewish Scene, Ynetnews, May 2, 2008, accessed July 4, 2016 .
  27. ^ Thousands of conversions questioned. ynetnews.com, accessed July 5, 2016 .
  28. ^ Louis Bernstein: The Emergence of the English Speaking Orthodox Rabbinate . Yeshiva University, 1977 (English).
  29. ^ Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927-1970. Volume II. Pp. 850-852.
  30. ^ Jack Wertheimer: A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America . University Press of New England, 1997.
  31. ^ Reform Movement's Resolution on Patrilineal Descent. on jewishvirtuallibrary.org
  32. ^ The Establishment of Reform Judaism in Israel. (No longer available online.) Global Jewish Advocacy Legacy Site, archived from the original on March 4, 2016 ; Retrieved July 5, 2016 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ajc.org
  33. ↑ a b Jerry Lewis: UK Reform rabbis accept patrilineal descent. In: The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved July 5, 2016 .
  34. ^ Hillel Goldberg: Fifth Anniversary of the Mikveh of East Denver.
  35. ^ A b David Landau: Piety & Power . Hill & Wang, 1993, p. 320 .
  36. ↑ Anousim. on kulanu.org