Majos

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Majos or Mahos were the indigenous people of the island of Lanzarote . The first inhabitants of the island of Fuerteventura , the majoreros, are sometimes referred to as majos. The first human presence in Lanzarote is for the 10th century BC. Proven. In the first century BC Until the third century AD there were close relations with Rome or with the areas of North Africa under Roman influence. These connections broke off completely in the course of the 4th century AD. Since that time the Majos lived without contact with the other islands. In the next 1000 years or so they developed their own culture. After the aborigines were subjugated to the rule of the Crown of Castile in the 15th century, the majos were wiped out as an independent ethnic group through various measures taken by the new rulers .

First settlement on the island of Lanzarote

There are various hypotheses about the origins of the indigenous peoples and the way in which they reached the Canary Islands. The "hipótesis mediterránea" (Mediterranean hypothesis) was created since around 1980 as a model to explain the settlement of the Canary Islands. It is based on the theory that the protagonists of the colonization of the Canary Islands were Phoenician-Punic seafarers who brought groups of settlers from the "Círculo del Estrecho" to the islands. "Círculo del Estrecho" is the name given to the extensive geopolitical zone that extends over the extreme south of the Iberian Peninsula and the western part of the North African coast at the transition from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean.

Dating of archaeological finds show that the colonization process on the island of Lanzarote at the time of the transition to the 10th century BC. Began. Phoenician sailors visited the island at this time. During excavations, the archaeologists came across finds from a community that belonged to the Phoenician-Punic culture of the western Mediterranean. The settlement of the Canary Islands was not a one-off process, but rather dragged on over several centuries. The purpose of this settlement was presumably to establish a base for contact with western Africa. The fish-rich waters and the good opportunities for salt production offered the best conditions for the production of salted fish and garum . The Canary Islands also had Orseille and Dragon's Blood for the manufacture of dyes. The relations between the Mediterranean countries and the Canary Islands, which were presumably diminished in the meantime, were increasingly taken up again by the Romans or the Mauritanians , who were then part of the Roman culture . On the island of Lobos , located between Lanzarote and Fuerteventura , facilities from Roman times have been found that indicate the production of dye from the purple snail . These ties broke completely after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. There was probably no contact between the islands and the outside world between the 4th century and the end of the Middle Ages. During these approx. 1000 years, the Majos on Lanzarote developed their own culture.

Population development

Historians assume that in the phase of settlement around the turn of the ages the population increase was quite high, only to decrease somewhat. In the time before the contacts with European seafarers in the 14th century, a balance was presumably reached between the population and the available resources, which led to measures being taken to prevent further population growth. Reports of a small number of women and an overwhelming number of men suggest that the killing of newborn girls reduced the number of births.

The not very steep coastal areas of the island of Lanzarote offer easy access from the sea. Expeditions by Genoese , Portuguese , Mallorcans , Catalans and Andalusians came to the islands from the 14th century to catch people who they sold as slaves in the markets in the Mediterranean region and on the Spanish peninsulas. One of the attacks, that of Gonzalo Pérez Martel, lord of Almonaster, on the population of Lanzarote in 1393 is reported in the chronicle of Henry III. The sailors landed on the island of Lanzarote and took the "King", the "Queen" and another 160 people as prisoners.

Another reason for the decline in population after the Europeans rediscovered the Canary Islands were diseases to which the majos, unlike the conquerors, were not immune to. Exact numbers for all parts of the island are not known, but a comment in the chronicle " Le Canarien " suggests that the numbers were important. It says there was a high mortality rate among the 100 prisoners, despite the fact that the French crew at Fort Rubicon were in excellent health.

After the conquest of the island in the name of the Crown of Castile, the population increased briefly, but then decreased again, due to the participation of the majos as auxiliary troops in military operations to conquer the island of Gran Canaria and the conquest of the island of Tenerife as well as through the expeditions in the areas of the African Atlantic coast north of Cape Bojador , which were awarded to Castile by the treaties of Alcáçovas and Tordesillas . Harvest failures and the harsh system of feudal rule caused migration to the islands of Gran Canaria and Tenerife, which were under direct royal rule at the beginning of the 16th century.

Appearance

In the report "Le Canarien", which describes the subjugation of the island by Jean de Béthencourt from a contemporary point of view, it is mentioned that the children had very light skin, but that this tanned over time due to the fact that people did not wear any clothing. The express statement, also in other written traditions, that the inhabitants of the island had light skin, is apparently based on the fact that the seafarers had expected dark-skinned people on islands so far south off the African coast.

The number of archaeological finds of bones of the indigenous people in Lanzarote is very small. Most of the finds do not have entire skeletons. Therefore anthropologists can not derive any scientifically founded statements about the appearance of the majos. On the basis of the bone finds of 33 male and 22 female majos, a height of 1.70 m for the men and 1.60 m for the women was estimated.

language

On each of the Canary Islands a different language was spoken by the respective indigenous people. These languages ​​are traced back to a common source language. It is assumed that the differences arose from the isolated development of cultures over more than a thousand years. The languages ​​show a similarity to the Berber languages ​​in the area of ​​northern Africa. From this it is concluded that at least a large part of the indigenous population, which determines the language, came from this area. Due to the need to adapt to the culture determined by the new rulers, the languages ​​disappeared up to the end of the 16th century, except for a few place and plant names or technical terms.

society

At the head of the majos was a person who is referred to in the reports of the Europeans as the "king". This office was inherited in a family. There was advice from those of higher rank given their age and origin. The council apparently also acted as the highest court. Women played a special role in society, as property and social position were presumably inherited in the female line . In addition, it is reported in the Chronicle of Le Canarien that the women were each married to three men.

funeral

There is almost no information about the burial traditions of the Majos. From the period of more than 15 centuries, from the settlement of the island of Lanzarote to the submission, the remains of only 55 deceased were documented up to 2016. For a large part of the older finds, the exact location and the circumstances of the find are not known. All statements about the way in which the majos buried their deceased relate to individual cases and cannot be regarded as universally valid.

On the island of Lanzarote, some cases are known in which the deceased were buried in caves. The presence of burial mounds on Lanzarote has not been proven. It is noticeable that in relation to the number on the other islands, on Lanzarote, very few burial places were found. The possibility that all potential sites were destroyed or covered over by the volcanic eruptions in the 1730s is considered unlikely. According to another theory, the small number of burial sites could result from the majos burning their dead. Chapter XXXIII of Le Canarien reports on a case in which a corpse was cremated. Were also in the Roman culture with which the natives of the island to the 3rd century. Chr. In combination, were cremations usual.

Dwellings

The majos lived to a large extent in settlements that consisted of several dwellings. Their location was determined by the availability of grazing areas for the cattle. The most important selection criterion for the location, however, was the productivity of the water points in the immediate vicinity.

Due to the geological conditions, caves only play a subordinate role as dwelling places on Lanzarote. The relatively small number of caves and their location and orientation meant that only a few majos lived in caves. Even so, there are some caves of historical importance. According to the traditional reports, the cave that belongs to the Zonzamas site is the "residence" of the last "king" of the island Luis de Guardafía . This cave was divided into different rooms by walls. The cave is part of a settlement that consists of other buildings.

The "Casas hondas" (deep houses) were dug into the earth in such a way that half of the apartment or a little more was below the level of the earth and only parts of the wall, which were built from uncut but evenly shaped stones, protruded beyond it. The ground plans were circular or oval, in rare cases also rectangular. The entrances, with several steps, faced the leeward side. This type of building was used for both housing and storage.

Economy and nutrition

Collect

The Lanzarote ecosystem did not allow any need-based collecting activity for plant products. The seeds of wild plants such as goose feet , sweet grasses , flight oats , Avena canariensis an endemic species of ice plant , branchy Affodill etc. were collected, roasted and blended into Gofio . The autochthonous Canary Island date palms grow on the bottom of Barrancos and in humid areas of the island of Lanzarote. The fruits are smaller and less fleshy than those of the real date palm . They are high in sugar, so they are very nutritious. The fruits played an important role in the diet of the majos. After the rain, an underground fungus called the desert truffle Terfezia canariensis develops on the island of Lanzarote in symbiosis with the roots of the sun rose (Helianthemum canariense) . The presence of other types of mushrooms on the islands could not be proven before the subjugation by the Europeans in the 15th century.

livestock farming

Goats were best adapted to the conditions on the island. Their number exceeded that of any other domestic animal. They provided milk, meat, hides, bones, horns and sinews. Most of the goats were kept in herds that were brought from the residential areas to other pastures on a daily basis. In addition, there were a number of goats that lived almost freely away from the Majos' homes in areas where the vegetation was too little to feed a normal herd.

The island of Lanzarote is also suitable for keeping sheep due to its geomorphology . However, the often long periods of drought lead to plant growth that is usually insufficient for sheep. The few sheep in relation to the goats belonged to a breed that had neither wool nor horns.

The islands of Lanzarote are also not particularly suitable for keeping pigs, as these animals particularly require a cool climate with a significant amount of moisture and as lush vegetation as possible. Bones of a breed of pig related to the wild boar of the Mediterranean region were found. They were considerably smaller than today's black pigs (Cerdo negro canario), were very hairy and had well-developed canine teeth.

agriculture

The majos grew barley. It is believed that wheat was only introduced to Lanzarote in the 15th century. The sowing took place just before the onset of autumn rains. To do this, simple devices such as goat horns or digging sticks were used to drill shallow holes in the ground, place a grain in it and cover it with earth. Canarian barley was drought-resistant, requiring only a small amount of water at the beginning of development and at the end of the growth phase. The barley also grew in poor quality stony and sandy soils. The harvest took place in April to May. Some of the grains were kept in clay jars until the next sowing.

hunt

Monk seals ( lobos marinos in Spanish ) were found on the beaches of the island of Lanzarote until the 15th century . The catch of these animals not only provided the majos with an important supply of meat, but also, because of the thickness and strength of the leather, the best material for the manufacture of shoes and clothing. Lizards could be caught all year round on almost the entire island . Petrels , bustards and pigeons were caught alongside the Canary Quail , which is now extinct . The eggs of birds also contributed to the diet of the majos. With the frequent plagues of locusts, many of the animals were probably killed, dried, ground and eaten with milk.

fish and seafood

Fish waste has been found in various archaeological excavations on the island of Lanzarote. It was about fish that live in the bank area. Since no fish hooks or nets have been found on Lanzarote, it is assumed that the fish were caught with fish sluices ( Spanish corrales ) that the natives built between the rocks. These were water-permeable walls that were built in the rocky shore regions. At high tide these were below the surface of the water, at low tide the fish were caught in small beach lakes. Archaeological finds have given us the record of catching molluscs and seafood by the Majos. Large piles of shells and cases can be found on the island. These piles of remains of seafood near the beach, called "concheros", far from the residents' homes, are sometimes interpreted as the result of meals together, perhaps even with a religious background. A less spectacular explanation arises from the fact that the concheros were the result of a processing of the seafood near the beach, which was cooked and dried for better durability before being transported to the residential areas.

Artifacts

Even if the pottery is undoubtedly the most common material found in the sites of the aborigines, the information comes almost exclusively from fragments, while vessels preserved as a whole are very rare. The ceramics of the island of Lanzarote are divided into different groups in terms of size, capacity, manufacturing technique and type of decoration. An important group were the large vessels that were made with ceramic construction. They were decorated with horizontal ornamental ribbons. They were also used to store the surplus agricultural produce. The vessels of another group, in which the capacity did not exceed about one liter, are usually of good quality and provided with particularly eye-catching decorations. Since there are no usable metal deposits on Lanzarote, the cutting tools were made from stone. Suitable material for the hand axes was because of the great hardness and sharp edges of the tee of flint . A variety of stone hand mills were found, round mills consisting of an upper and a lower stone, boat-like mills in which a stone was moved back and forth and mortars. With these tools, the grain and seeds were processed into Gofio after roasting.

During various archaeological excavations on the island of Lanzarote, objects were found that are considered to be the personal jewelry of the Majos. The pieces made of chalcedony and basalt are almost flat and trapezoidal, square or oval cut. You have cuts right now. Some are decorated with incised lines. In the case of these pieces, it is unclear whether they were only used as personal jewelry or whether they also had a religious meaning as amulets. Other finds that have a hole for threading consist of limestone , mussel shells or snail shells, among others from cone snails . Small, round plates were cut from the same materials, through which a string or a piece of leather was pulled.

Petroglyphs

A peculiarity of the petroglyphs of the island of Lanzarote is their frequency and their distribution over the entire surface of the island at all altitudes. The inscriptions can be found in barrancos, on mountains, on rocks and in areas of the Malpaís. Geometric motifs predominate in the petroglyphs of the Majos. Straight and parallel lines sometimes cross like a network. Circular motifs are less common. A special case is the image on the so-called stele of Zonzamas ( Spanish Estela de Zonzamas ) on which there are five concentric semicircles. A large number of petroglyphs show figurative motifs. Among them, the Podomorfos are considered a special group. Today it is assumed that the depictions of ships were made in the tradition of the indigenous people after the conquest of the Canary Islands. The rock inscriptions on the island of Lanzarote sometimes have a special shape that is otherwise only found on the island of Fuerteventura. The characters, which so far cannot be interpreted with certainty, are very similar to the characters found on old inscriptions in northern Tunisia and north-eastern Geria.

Destruction of culture

From the 14th century there are various reports that Europeans visited the island of Lanzarote. The Genoese merchant and seafarer Lancelotto Malocello is said to have stayed on the island from 1312 to before 1339 and had a fortification tower built. The island of Lanzarote is drawn in a portolan by the Mallorcan cartographer Angelino Dulcert from 1339. It is noted that this is the island of the Genoese Lancelotto Malocello.

In 1341 King Alfonso IV of Portugal equipped an expedition to explore the Canary Islands. She was so equipped and armed that it can be assumed that the aim was to conquer the islands. One of the participants, Niccoloso da Recco (1327–1364), wrote a detailed report that became an important source for researching the history of the island of Lanzarote.

The expeditions of the Europeans with the aim of catching people in the Canary Islands in order to sell them as slaves, the majos were exposed to almost unprotected because of their limited defense possibilities and because of the easy access of the attackers from the sea. With the arrival of the French nobles Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de La Salle with a few soldiers and settlers on Lanzarote, a new situation arose for the Majos.

The primary goal of this expedition in 1402 was the establishment of a trading post and the settlement of Europeans on the island. The majos had hardly anything to counter this. They concluded protection treaties with the intruders. Today these contracts are seen as fundamentally beneficial for both sides, since protection against attacks by the slave hunters was of vital importance to the majos. The evaluation of the sometimes violent approach also shows that it was not a war of conquest according to the conventional scheme that we are used to assign to this designation. This is why the process is better known as a series of skirmishes, which in no way can be described as acts of war on a large scale, because the balance of power between the conquerors and the conquered was equal in the early days. The term submission or forcible submission is therefore seen as more appropriate, except for the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. The submission to the supremacy of the Crown of Castile and the adoption of the Christian religion led to a complete transformation of the social, economic and cultural conditions of the Majos following the example of Andalusia. After a few interim transfers of rights to the island, it was an integral part of the lands of the Castilian crown with a Castilian-speaking Christian population at the latest in 1477, when the Catholic kings of the Peraza family expressly confirmed their rights. This consisted of a mixture of descendants of the Majos, descendants of the first French settlers, descendants of the immigrants from the Iberian Peninsula and people who came from the African coast.

literature

  • Antonio S. Almeida Aguiar [et al.]: Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . Ed .: Armando del Toro García. tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 (Spanish).
  • José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 314 (Spanish, unirioja.es [accessed May 22, 2017]).

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña: Excavaciones arqueológicas en el sitio de Buenavista (Lanzarote) - Nuevos datos para el estudio de la colonización protohistórica del archipiélago . In: Gerión . tape 29 , no. 1 , 2011, ISSN  0213-0181 , p. 79 (Spanish, dialnet.unirioja.es [accessed March 5, 2019]).
  2. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña: Consideraciones en relación con la colonización protohistórica de las Islas Canarias . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 59 , 2013, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 527 ff . (Spanish, dialnet.unirioja.es [accessed March 5, 2019]).
  3. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 39 ff . (Spanish, [1] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  4. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña: Consideraciones en relación con la colonización protohistórica de las Islas Canarias . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 59 , 2013, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 527 ff . (Spanish, [2] [accessed May 17, 2017]).
  5. ↑ Pablo Peña Atoche: Las Culturas Protohistóricas Canarias en el contexto del desarrollo cultural mediterráneo: propuesta de fasificación . In: Rafael González Antón, Fernando López Pardo, Victoria Peña (eds.): Los fenicios y el Atlántico IV Coloquio del CEFYP . Universidad Complutense, Centro de Estudios Fenicios y Púnicos, 2008, ISBN 978-84-612-8878-6 , pp. 329 (Spanish, [3] [accessed May 25, 2017]).
  6. ↑ María del Carmen Arco Aguilar et al .: Un taller romano de púrpura en los límites de la Ecúmene: Lobos 1 (Fuerteventura, Islas Canaria): primeros resultados . Ed .: María del Carmen del Arco Aguilar, María Mercedes del Arco Aguilar, Carmen Benito Mateo, María Candelaria Rosario Adrián. Museo Arqueológico de Tenerife, Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros, Cabildo de Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife 2016, ISBN 978-84-88594-83-9 , p. 518 (Spanish).
  7. ↑ a b José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 90 (Spanish, dialnet.unirioja.es [accessed February 3, 2020]).
  8. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 49 (Spanish).
  9. ↑ Julio Cuenca Sanabria, Antonio Betancor Rodríguez, Guillermo Rivero López: La práctica del infanticidio femenino como método de control de la natalidad entre los aborígenes canarios - las evidencias arqueológicas en Cendro, Telde, Gran Canaria . In: El museo canario . No. 51 , 1996, ISSN  0211-450X , p. 103-180 (Spanish, [4] [accessed February 12, 2017]).
  10. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 104 (Spanish, [5] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  11. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Luis López Medina, Justo Pedro Hernández González: Las enfermedades de los antiguos canarios en la etapa de contacto con los europeos . In: Anuario de Estudios Atlánticos . No. 46 , 2000, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 397 (Spanish, [6] [accessed July 9, 2018]).
  12. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 91 (Spanish, [7] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  13. ↑ Eduardo Aznar: Le Canarien: Retrato de dos mundos I. Textos . In: Eduardo Aznar, Dolores Corbella, Berta Pico, Antonio Tejera (eds.): Le Canarien: retrato de dos mundos (=  Fontes Rerum Canarium ). tape XLII . Instituto de Estudios Canarios, La Laguna 2006, ISBN 84-88366-58-2 , p. 33 (Spanish).
  14. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 79 (Spanish, [8] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  15. ^ Ilse Schwidetzky: Population biology of the Canary Islands . In: El museo canario . No. 41 , 1981, ISSN  0211-450X , p. 50 (English, [9] [accessed February 13, 2017]).
  16. ^ Javier Soler Segura: Entre túmulos, cuevas y restos humanos. Análisis historiográfico de las evidencias bioantropológicas de la Arqueología de Lanzarote . In: Vegueta: Anuario de la Facultad de Geografía e Historia . No. 16 , 2016, ISSN  1133-598X , p. 519 (Spanish, [10] [accessed December 18, 2017]).
  17. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña, María Ángeles Ramírez Rodríguez, Conrado Rodríguez Martín, María Dolores Rodríguez Armas, Sergio Pérez González: De antropología, ritos y creencias funerarias en la Protohistoria de Lanzarote (Islas Canarias) . In: Pablo Atoche, Conrado Rodríguez, María Ángeles Ramírez (eds.): Mummies and Science. World Mummies Research . Academia Canaria de la Historia, Teguise (Lanzarote) 2008, p. 170 (Spanish, [11] [accessed May 23, 2017]).
  18. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 66 (Spanish, [12] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  19. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Los aborígenes en la chrónica Le Canarien . In: Eduardo Aznar, Dolores Corbella, Berta Pico, Antonio Tejera (eds.): Le Canarien: retrato de dos mundos (=  Fontes Rerum Canarium ). tape XLIII . Instituto de Estudios Canarios, La Laguna 2006, ISBN 84-88366-59-0 , p. 170 (Spanish).
  20. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 280 (Spanish, [13] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  21. ^ Javier Soler Segura: Entre túmulos, cuevas y restos humanos. Análisis historiográfico de las evidencias bioantropológicas de la Arqueología de Lanzarote . In: Vegueta: Anuario de la Facultad de Geografía e Historia . No. 16 , 2016, ISSN  1133-598X , p. 519 (Spanish, [14] [accessed December 18, 2017]).
  22. ^ Matilde Arnay de la Rosa: Bioantropología y Arquelogía Funeraria . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 , p. 45-47 (Spanish).
  23. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña, María Ángeles Ramírez Rodríguez, Conrado Rodríguez Martín, María Dolores Rodríguez Armas, Sergio Pérez González: De antropología, ritos y creencias funerarias en la Protohistoria de Lanzarote (Islas Canarias) . In: Pablo Atoche, Conrado Rodríguez, María Ángeles Ramírez (eds.): Mummies and Science. World Mummies Research . Academia Canaria de la Historia, Teguise (Lanzarote) 2008, p. 175 (Spanish, [15] [accessed May 23, 2017]).
  24. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña, María Ángeles Ramírez Rodríguez, Conrado Rodríguez Martín, María Dolores Rodríguez Armas, Sergio Pérez González: De antropología, ritos y creencias funerarias en la Protohistoria de Lanzarote (Islas Canarias) . In: Pablo Atoche, Conrado Rodríguez, María Ángeles Ramírez (eds.): Mummies and Science. World Mummies Research . Academia Canaria de la Historia, Teguise (Lanzarote) 2008, p. 177 (Spanish, [16] [accessed May 23, 2017]).
  25. ↑ Le Canarien: Retrato de dos mundos I. Textos . In: Eduardo Aznar, Dolores Corbella, Berta Pico, Antonio Tejera (eds.): Le Canarien: retrato de dos mundos (=  Fontes Rerum Canarium ). tape XLII . Instituto de Estudios Canarios, La Laguna 2006, ISBN 84-88366-58-2 , p. 100 (Spanish).
  26. ↑ Norbert Fischer: Cremation and Crematorium. Between technology and grief. 2002, accessed August 14, 2018 .
  27. ↑ Dimas Martín Socas: Zonzamas . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 , p. 89-91 (Spanish).
  28. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Habitat . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 , p. 49-50 (Spanish).
  29. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 57 (Spanish).
  30. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 174 (Spanish, [17] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  31. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 174 (Spanish, [18] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  32. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 174 (Spanish, [19] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  33. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 161 (Spanish, [20] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  34. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 154 (Spanish, [21] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  35. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 145 (Spanish, [22] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  36. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 163 (Spanish, [23] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  37. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 165 (Spanish, [24] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  38. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 59 (Spanish).
  39. ↑ José Carlos Cabrera Pérez, María Antonia Perera Betancort, Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Majos, la primitiva población de Lanzarote - Islas Canarias . Fundación César Manrique, Teguise (Lanzarote) 1999, ISBN 84-88550-30-8 , p. 167 (Spanish, [25] [accessed May 22, 2017]).
  40. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Cerámica . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 , p. 57-59 (Spanish).
  41. ^ Bertila Galván Santos: Industria Lítica . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 , p. 61-62 (Spanish).
  42. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Adorno y Industria Osea . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Lanzarote / Fuerteventura . tape 1 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-213-8 , p. 65-67 (Spanish).
  43. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 70 ff . (Spanish, [26] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  44. ↑ Renata Ana Springer Bunk: The Libyan-Berber inscriptions of the Canary Islands in their rock painting context . Köppe, Cologne 2014, ISBN 978-3-89645-942-8 , pp. 21 .
  45. ↑ Elías Serra Ráfols: Los portugueses en Canarias . Imprenta y Librería Curbelo, La Laguna 1941, p. 13 (Spanish, ulpgc.es [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  46. ↑ Eduardo Aznar: Le Canarien: Retrato de dos mundos I. Textos . In: Eduardo Aznar, Dolores Corbella, Berta Pico, Antonio Tejera (eds.): Le Canarien: retrato de dos mundos (=  Fontes Rerum Canarium ). tape XLII . Instituto de Estudios Canarios, La Laguna 2006, ISBN 84-88366-58-2 , p. 49 (Spanish).