Migration and Asylum Policy of Australia

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Australian government poster campaign

The migration and asylum policy in Australia has a long tradition. This policy has historical roots in the White Australia Policy , which first found its way into a law in 1901 that was passed by the then newly formed Commonwealth of Australia . The "Immigration Restriction Act 1901" was the starting point for Australia's policy, which is directed against the immigration of non-Europeans. The legal practice was relaxed after the Second World War , but due to the increased influx of " boat people " since the 1970s, this relaxation was lifted in 1992 and immigration detention was introduced. This policy also led to the fact that to this day so-called boat people can be arrested at sea and transported to third countries or interned there.

The migration zone Australia in its current form, with military use for surveillance, was created in September 2001 in the wake of the Tampa affair under the liberal-conservative government of Prime Minister John Howard . Howard wanted to prevent a landing of passengers of the MS Tampa, a Norwegian cargo ship, on the Australian mainland. This migratory zone stretches far off the Australian coast of Queensland , Western Australia and the Northern Territory, and it also extends far into international waters. Within this zone there are around 4,000 islands, including Christmas Island , Ashmore and Cartier Islands and Cocos Islands as well as technical facilities at sea such as Australian oil rigs. Since 2016, the migration zone has also included Norfolk Island , an Australian outer area .

Since the National Liberal government of Tony Abbott , which came to power in 2013, the slogan was stop the boats to the program of Operation Sovereign Borders (German: sovereign borders: Action ) declared a zero tolerance policy towards boat people. Asylum seekers who could not produce an entry visa were taken into immigration detention in April 2017 due to the current legal situation and placed in internment camps abroad. His successor Malcolm Turnbull adhered to this policy against the boat people, as did the current conservative government under Scott Morrison (as of December 2019).

Australia certainly takes in asylum seekers, for example 8,460 refugees from Syria and Iraq in the 2015 and 2016 financial years . Australia also issued visas to 13,800 refugees from mid-2013 to mid-2014 and also issued visas to 20,000 between 2012 and 2013. However, the government continues to take strict action against the boat people, because it can assume that the majority of the population views the boat people negatively, as stated in an article in the Sydney Morning Herald on January 1, 2017 : Naturalization detention and the deportation of the Boat people in other countries are currently not very controversial in Australia.

prehistory

The first human spread to Australia

The first migration of the Australian continent took place around 50,000 years ago when a small group of Homo sapiens arrived on the deserted continent and established their own hunter-gatherer way of life and their culture and culture . There is also the thesis that 4,000 years ago a further and larger immigration took place in Australia, which u. a. is also derived from the presence of the dingoes .

When the British colonized Australia after the First Fleet landed in Port Jackson on January 26, 1788 , they murdered or expelled a large part of the indigenous population in the course of colonization. The British deported more than 160,000 convicts to Australia from 1788 to 1868, and 200,000 free settlers settled in the British colonies of Australia from 1793 to 1850.

The banner "ROLL UP - ROLL UP - NO CHINESE" (Disappear Chinese!) Is considered the first racist symbol of Australia. It was worn in the Lambing Flat Riots .

During the gold rush in Australia from 1851 to 1860, around 600,000 people immigrated, including 81 percent British, 10 percent European and 7 percent Chinese. With the massive immigration at the time, the population rose to 1,200,000 million within a decade and changed the former convict colony of Australia into a civil society.

There were several conflicts and violent clashes in the gold fields between European and Chinese gold prospectors, such as on July 4, 1857 in the Buckland Riot in Victoria and on June 14, 1861 in the Lambing Flat Riot in New South Wales . The cause of these conflicts is seen in the different ways of life and work as well as in the competition for the best gold claims. In response to this unrest, restrictions on length of stay, families and employment were imposed in Victoria in 1857 and New South Wales in 1861. During the time of the Australian gold rush, around 40,000 Chinese were working in the gold fields. Those who stayed in Australia after the gold rush ended mostly ran restaurants and laundries. By 1861, the Chinese made up 3.3 percent of the Australian population.

Furthermore, numerous so-called “Afghan camel drivers” worked and migrated, but they also came from different countries. These people went a long way in exploring Australia. Numerous Asians and islanders who worked in the early Australian pearl industry also settled. Due to different lifestyles and cultures, the inhabitants of European descent displaced them into separate city districts and settlements. There was also a small percentage of Maoris who worked in the rapidly developing timber industry near Sydney in the 1830s.

Islanders are recruited on the home beach (illustration around 1892)

In order to operate the labor-intensive sugar and cotton plantations in early Queensland , around 60,000 Melanesian islanders were transported as so-called Blackbirded workers on ships to Queensland from 1863 to 1903 , where they had to work there for three years. In the year the Commonwealth of Australia was founded , the Pacific Island Laborers Act came into force on December 23, 1901. This law meant that the administration repatriated about 7,500 islanders to their homeland between 1904 and December 31, 1906. Only about 1600 of them were able to stay in Queensland. Leading politicians from Queensland and New South Wales emphasized at the time that there would be no future for Asians and people of color in Australia.

Striking shearers' camp in Hughenden , central Queensland, 1891

In 1889 the population of Australia had risen to about three million people. At the beginning of the 1890s, an economic crisis developed in Australia. As a result, employers put pressure on wages and European workers resisted. Strikes ensued, in which work was stopped while Chinese and non-Australian workers continued to work at low wages or were used as strike breakers. This also meant that the early Australian labor movement was reluctant to immigrate and immigration came to a standstill due to poor economic conditions.

From 1901: "Immigration Restriction Act"

In 1901, the newly constituted Commonwealth of Australia ended the migration of non-European people when they enacted the Immigration Restriction Act of Australia 1901. This law is often referred to as the birth of white Australian politics . That law and the Pacific Island Laborers Act 1901 were among the first laws of the new Australian state. They were of a racist character. As a result of the Immigration Restriction Act , proficiency tests in any European language, not just English, became a criterion for immigration. The writing test that was asked of the Czech communist and journalist Egon Kisch who was willing to immigrate in the 1930s became famous. Kish was fluent in several languages ​​and English. After he had already passed several tests in different languages, he was asked to write the Our Father in Scottish Gaelic . Understandably, this was not possible for him. This case came before the highest court in Australia, which only in this particular case declared the Scottish Gaelic language test "too obscure".

If only one word was misspelled in the 50-word test, it meant that the immigration application was rejected. For example, in 1909 there were 1,359 such tests, with only 52 people passing. This test was then changed to a dictation test, making it even more difficult. Now after 1909 no one passed this test.

About 390,000 people immigrated to Australia from 1905 to 1914. It was mostly British (Irish, English and Scots) and New Zealanders. At the beginning of World War I , Australia's population had grown to around five million.

During the First World War, Australia, as part of the British Empire, viewed people of German origin as opponents of the war, although some of the people of German origin had lived in Australia for generations. At the end of the world war 700 German-Australians had already been expelled to Germany and another 4,000 were to be repatriated. After the World War, immigration of people from Greece and Malta was undesirable until 1920 if they were involved in acts of war against the Empire. Germans, Austrians, Hungarians, and Bulgarians could not immigrate until 1920, and Turks until 1930.

In the 1920s, around 340,000 exclusively European people immigrated, including around 220,000 British as well as numerous Greeks , Italians and Yugoslavs (80 percent of them Croatians ). With the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, which resulted in unemployment of up to 32 percent in Australia, immigration numbers were significantly minimized in the 1930s.

At the Évian Conference , at which 32 nations were represented in 1938, Australia was expected to receive 30,000 persecuted Jews from the Third Reich and Austria annually . Australia pledged to take in 15,000 over three years. The Australian negotiator, Lieutenant Colonel and Minister Sir Thomas Walter White (1888–1957), expressed his opinion on various of the delegations from 32 countries as follows: "As we have no real racial problem, we are not desirous of importing one." German : "Since we have no real race problem [in Australia], we are not anxious to import one either.") By the beginning of the Second World War in 1939, 5000 Jewish asylum seekers arrived in Australia.

During the Second World War, Australia granted asylum to people who had fled the Japanese occupation of China, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands by the Imperial Japanese Army . Temporary asylum was also granted to anti-Japanese businesspeople and non-Europeans on ships that were stranded in Australian ports. The Australian government assumed, however, that this group of people would have to leave the country after the end of the World War.

The Australian migration policy at the time was shaped by the prevailing view among the white population worldwide that the non-whites were "lower races", people without morals and intellectually underdeveloped.

Even after the end of the First World War and in the Second World War , this racist migration policy continued for a while.

After 1945

Immigrants from the Netherlands (1954)

It was only after the end of the Second World War that migration policy changed as a result of the experiences of many Australian soldiers who had fought together with people of other nationalities. Asians had also come to Australia as allied soldiers and fought against Japan. In this way prejudices were reduced.

Arthur Calwell , Australia's first immigration minister in the Labor government of Prime Minister Ben Chifley , which came to power in July 1945, played a decisive role in changing immigration policy in the post-war period . Calwell was highly recognized as a politician in Australia, he overcame historically built up resistance to immigration in the Labor Party and in the Australian trade unions. However, he pursued a limited liberal immigration policy that was strictly against the immigration of non-Europeans. Calwell pursued the policy of "white Australia" in migration. He traveled to numerous European countries and successfully promoted immigration to Australia there.

To accommodate the tens of thousands of immigrants after their arrival from 1947 until the mid-1980s, they were housed in works camps and migrant hostels, also known in Australia as migrant camps , reception centers, and holding centers . They mainly served as initial accommodation and there were 12 migrant hostels in South Australia alone, and others in Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia.

In addition, the Australians became aware in the post-war period that their existing workforce was too small for the further economic development and military defense of their country. A discussion ensued, which was led with the catchphrase “Populate or perish” (German: “Populate or go under”). Initially, it was mainly the Displaced Persons from Europe who shaped immigration. When Australia began building the major Snowy Mountains System project in 1949 , around 100,000 jobs were created, 70 percent of which were occupied by workers from different European countries. Most of these foreign workers settled in Australia and they brought their families to join them. With this immigration and the new cultural influences, Australia changed towards a multicultural society.

The Labor government lost the election in 1949 and Robert Menzies of the Liberal Party of Australia became Prime Minister. The liberalization of Australian migration policy towards non-Europeans began in 1949. It was based on the decision of the Conservative Minister Harold Holt , who allowed 800 non-Europeans to stay and soldiers to join their "war brides" and their children. In 1957 the immigration of non-Europeans was also allowed, provided they could prove a residence of 15 years.

After the end of the World War - more precisely: between 1945 and 1954 - around 17,000 Jews were able to immigrate.

From 1958: "Migrations Act"

When the Migration Act 1958 was passed in 1958 , the writing tests came to an end. This law was of great importance for the further development of Australian migration policy, because the Australian Parliament stipulated that the Christmas Island , the Ashmore and Cartier Islands and Cocus Islands , although Australian territories , can lose their "migration zones ". This meant that the legal basis was laid so that boat people who land there cannot apply for asylum and instead commit a crime under Australian law. They could be deported or taken into immigration detention at any time. The Australian Parliament passed a corresponding implementing law in 2001 with the Migration Amendment (Excision from Migration Zone) Act 2001 .

The migration policy, which, despite this law, continued to be based on practical considerations, was also practiced after the end of the Vietnam War , when Vietnamese asylum seekers came to Australia in boats. An estimated 1.8 million Vietnamese fled in 1975 and around 20 million over the next 20 years, mostly to the surrounding Asian countries. Relatively few of them came to Australia: From 1976 to 1981 about 2000 Vietnamese reached Australia on boats, from November 28, 1989 to January 27, 1994 another 735 came, the majority of them Cambodians. The asylum seekers from Vietnam were initially welcomed with sympathy because they came from a country where Australia had fought with other allies.

56 boats carrying asylum seekers landed in the Northern Territory in April 1976 , the last one arrived in August 1981. In the late 1970s, Australia only had three immigration centers in Sydney , Perth and Melbourne . Most of the incoming Asian boat people were accommodated in the form of a "loose detention" (German: "loose immigration"). The Vietnamese came to a building called "Westbridge" in Sydney, which was not fenced. However, the placement of the Vietnamese was not entirely liberal, as it was compulsory to attend a daily roll call during the recognition process. The complex, which is now fenced in with barbed wire, is now the Villawood Immigration Detention Center . At that time, this building was considered particularly suitable for accommodating boat people because of its structural requirements.

Despite the overall low number of boat refugees, the arrival of Cambodians sparked a public discussion about immigration. The political climate had changed, although on January 1, 1985 only 5 people were in the immigration centers.

From 1992

→ Main article: Immigration detention in Australia

As immigration increased, the Labor government under Bob Hawke passed a new law in June 1989, the Migration Legislation Amendment Act 1989 . It is true that immigration detention was not enforced in Australia until 1992, after Paul Keating was appointed Prime Minister of the Labor Party on December 20, 1991. Thereafter, the treatment of boat people changed. When Cambodian boat people landed in the north of Australia on November 28, 1989 , they were detained in Broome for three weeks and treated like illegal fishermen. It was only after this stay that they were taken to the Villawood Immigration Detention Center . In contrast to the Vietnamese boat people, they were not allowed to leave the immigration center and had to report to the Australian Protective Service every day . Between November 1989 and January 1994, 18 boats with Cambodians, Vietnamese and Chinese came to Australia. These were first held in custody for a long time, some for up to four years. Another response was the opening of the Port Hedland Immigration Reception and Processing Center in a remote area in Western Australia in 1991. Most of the Cambodians were interned there. In June 1992 there were 478 asylum seekers in Australia, including 421 boat people. 306 Cambodians were counted among these asylum seekers.

As of 1992, virtually all those who arrived on boats without a valid visa were placed in immigration detention in accordance with the Migration Amendment Act 1992 . Such camps exist in other countries as well, but Australia is the only country that detains asylum seekers.

From 2001: "Pacific solution"

At the end of August 2001, in the wake of the Tampa affair, the “Border Protection Bill 2001” was passed when a Norwegian freighter discovered a no longer seaworthy wooden boat with 438 boat people off Australian waters that threatened to sink. The Norwegian captain asked the Australian authorities several times in vain to take over the castaways. He then steered the freighter into Australian territorial waters and his ship was boarded by armed elite soldiers off Christmas Island . This led to a violent diplomatic battle between Norway and Australia. In this context, the Conservative Prime Minister John Howard arranged for asylum seekers to be accommodated outside the territory of Australia. They were taken to the internment camp still under construction on Nauru. 131 Tampa boat people were transported to New Zealand and were granted asylum within a very short time. On Nauru it sometimes took years.

The policy of John Howard became known as the "Pacific Solution" (German: Pacific solution ). This concept was intended to prevent asylum seekers from entering Australian soil. Because entering Australian territory sets an automatic mechanism in motion to initiate an asylum procedure. In 2001 , the Australian Parliament passed the Migration Amendment (Excision from Migration Zone) Act 2001 to prevent boat people from starting an asylum procedure on the offshore Australian islands . This Parliament thus determined that the Australian government is empowered to prohibit boat people who land in the Australian migration zone, including Christmas Island , Ashmore Islands, etc., as well as technical facilities such as Australian oil platforms, to apply for asylum. Entering these islands and objects was declared a criminal offense under Australian law and the boat people could be deported or taken into immigration detention at any time. It also legitimizes the evacuation of the ships and the deportation of the boat people. The ships of the boat people that were arrested at sea were given the designation SIEV by the military and were numbered consecutively. The Australian migration zone was now closely monitored by patrolling warships and aircraft. To achieve this goal, internment camps outside of Australian territory were put into operation. These are the Manus Regional Processing Center in Papua New Guinea and the Nauru Regional Processing Center in the island state of Nauru . Immigration detention was thus practiced outside Australian territory in third countries, which is still used today. There are also camps for asylum seekers in other countries, but immigration detention by law and accommodation in third countries only exist in Australia. As a result of the Tampa affair, the National Liberal government under John Howard won a parliamentary majority in 2001.

On June 7, 2002, the Australian government passed a legal regulation, the Migration Amendment Regulations , which included 4,000 islands off Queensland , Western Australia and the Northern Territory in the Australia migration zone. The Australian Senate refused to approve this regulation on June 19, 2002. As a result, the Australian Parliament passed a new law on the migration zone, the Migration Legislation Amendment (Further Border Protection Measures) Bill 2002 . The Senate approved this law on December 19, 2002. After Labor Party's Kevin Rudd won the 2007 election in Australia, the detention centers were closed in 2008. This meant the end of the “Pacific Solution”, but only for a short time.

From 2011: attempt of the "Malaysian Solution"

Protest against the policies of Kevin Rudd's second term (July 2013)

In 2011, under public pressure and the arrival of numerous boat people, Kevin Rudd was forced to reopen the internment camps in third countries. He lost the majority in the Labor Party, which automatically led to the loss of the post of Prime Minister. Julia Gillard became Prime Minister after him . She tried to limit the number of refugees with the concept of the so-called "Malaysian Solution" and in this way to free Australian migration policy from the stigma of racism. The “Malaysian Solution” was based on the proposal that 800 asylum seekers who came to Australia as boat people should be repatriated. In return, 4,000 Malaysians who had already received temporary residence permits in Australia were to be granted the right to immigrate. Gillard's venture failed in the Australian Supreme Court. After this failed attempt, Gillard reactivated the camps on Maunus and Nauru, which are outside Australian territory.

In the years from mid-2012 to mid-2013, around 38,000 boat people arrived in Australia.

From 2013: "Operation Sovereign Border"

Boatpeople who reached Australia from 1994 to 2012 (blue line)

After Gillard was voted out of office in June 2013, Kevin Rudd became Prime Minister again and now he too wanted to intern all boat people in foreign camps. On July 19, 2013, he declared that anyone who asylum seekers could reach Australia by boat would have no prospect of asylum there. Rudd was defeated in the November 2013 election and Tony Abbott came to power. Abbott ran his “stop the boats” election campaign, also known as Operation Sovereign Borders . In doing so, he continued the decisive migration policy initiated under Rudd after he took office on September 18, 2013 as Prime Minister, as did the subsequent government under Malcolm Turnbull , who has been Prime Minister since September 15, 2015.

In January 2014 Scott Morrison , the Australian Minister for Immigration under Tony Abbott, announced the closure of three detention centers. At the end of February 2014, the Scherger Immigration Detention Center in Queensland , Port Augusta Immigration Residential Housing in South Australia and Leonora Alternative Place of Detention in Western Australia were closed because the occupancy had decreased. Asylum seekers from these camps were distributed to other Australian internment camps. The Pontville Immigration Detention Center for unaccompanied children in Tasmania had been empty since September 2013 and was closed in February 2014.

While there were only three Australian immigration camps in the late 1970s, there were eight internment camps on Australian territory in March 2017. Asylum seekers are not allowed to leave the internment camps until their status has been determined. As of December 31, 2016, 1,364 asylum seekers were detained in Australian camps in Australia, including 263 on Christmas Island .

Manus Regional Processing Center (2012)
View inside an accommodation in the Nauru Regional Processing Center (2012)

A special feature are two internment camps for asylum seekers that are outside the territory of Australia. These are the Nauru Regional Processing Center on Nauru and the Manus Regional Processing Center on Manus in Papua New Guinea . Following interventions by the UN and human rights groups, the Constitutional Court of Papua New Guinea declared the Manus camp illegal in April 2016. The Australian government under Malcolm Turnbull then stated that it would not take over the more than 900 people from the camp. There were 380 asylum seekers in the Nauru camp on December 31, 2016 and 880 on Manus. Reuters reported on March 1, 2017 that a few dozen asylum seekers on Manus had accepted financial offers from the Australian government to return to their home countries. According to a press release on March 13, 2017, the Supreme Court Justice of Papua New Guinea said that the Manus refugee camp, which had 861 refugees at the time, would be closed on October 31, 2017.

The internment camps in Inland are operated by a British, privately operated service company, which is operated in third countries by private companies there.

In Australia there was in March 2017 all asylum seekers in accommodation in immigration detention centers (IDC) (German: immigration detention centers ), where a check is performed according to the criteria health, character and security concerns. The accommodation in these IDCs due to personal circumstances (conspicuousness, behavior, illness, etc.) not commanded, they come in the three Alternative Places of Detention (APD) (German: Alternative internment ). Suitable private houses, hotels, motels and hospitals are provided for this purpose. There, asylum seekers are taken under supervision and they cannot move around freely. But there is furthermore the possibility that asylum seekers are relatively freely placed in the general public, in community placements (German: collective sites ) that allow for freedom of movement subject to conditions and operated by nonprofit or religious organizations. However, you are not allowed to leave the location or accept any work. On December 31, 2016, 25,252 people were counted who were in Australia with a so-called Visa E , a so-called bridging visa . These are people whose stay has been approved for a limited period and who are no longer allowed to come back after leaving Australia.

Conditions in the internment camps

The placement of asylum seekers in internment camps has been a source of criticism since it was set up. There were numerous civil unrest, hunger strikes, self-harm and suicide . Some camps were in remote areas. The warehouses were and are managed and operated by private service companies.

Numerous human rights organizations such as Amnesty International , Australian Human Rights Commission , Human Rights Watch and the United Nations protested against the camp accommodation of the boat people . There were also cases where journalists were not allowed to enter the camps.

See also: Australian camps for asylum seekers

Current situation (2017-2019)

According to a January 1, 2017 article in the Sydney Morning Herald , Australian public opinion was that naturalization detention and the deportation of boat people to other countries are relatively undisputed.

According to a 115-page Global Legal Action Network report submitted to the International Criminal Court (ICC), the detention camps on Manus and Nauru outside Australia could be a crime against humanity , a violation of that Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court .

In an interim report by the Australian Commission on Human Rights dated March 30, 2017, it noted that overall significant progress had been made in two areas of Australian migration and asylum policy. This applies to both Australian policy and Australia's international legal obligations on this issue, including reducing the number of asylum seekers in immigration detention and ending detention of children in detention centers. The facilitation of work for refugees living in the Australian community was also to be welcomed.

Refugee rights activists had long exerted pressure, which in February 2019 led to the adoption of a bill requiring refugees from the camps on Manus and Nauru to be brought to Australia if doctors ordered it for medical reasons. The opposition in the Australian Parliament had used the situation of Scott Morrison's minority government and a particularity of the procedural rules to pass the law in February 2019. Once the refugees have entered mainland Australia, they remain in closed centers under the supervision of the authorities and would theoretically have to leave Australia again after their treatment has been completed, but this does not happen because refugee lawyers usually prevent repatriation by means of injunctions in court. The law was repealed in December 2019 by the government coalition.

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Australia's response to the Syrian and Iraqi humanitarian crisis ( Memento of the original from March 21, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , o.A., to Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 3, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  2. ↑ West Phippen: Australia's Controversial Migration Policy , April 29, 2016, on The Atlantic. Retrieved March 28, 2017
  3. ↑ a b c d Marcus Mannheim: Cabinet archives 1992-93: Forget Tampa, boat people panic began under Keating , from January 1, 2017, on Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved April 2, 2017
  4. ↑ Nicolas Wade: From DNA Analysis, Clues to a Single Australian , May 8, 2007, New York Times , accessed April 3, 2017
  5. ↑ Australia`s Immigration History ( Memento of the original from April 4, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , o. A., on National Maritime Museum . Retrieved April 3, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / waves.anmm.gov.au
  6. ↑ a b A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 5, dated June 2015, on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  7. ↑ Raymond Markey: Race and organized labor in Australia, 1850-1901 ( memento of the original from October 19, 2017) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , dated January 1996, on Historian Research. Retrieved April 17, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.highbeam.com
  8. ↑ Archives in Letter 33 - Chinese migration and settlement in New South Wales , n.a., on records.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved March 13, 2017
  9. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 6, dated June 2015, to Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 20, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  10. ↑ The Afghan Camelman on Flinders Range Research. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  11. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 6, dated June 2015, to Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 20, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  12. ^ South Sea Islanders call for an apology , September 2013, on ABC. Retrieved April 3, 2017
  13. ↑ Museum Victoria: Our Federation Journey - A 'White Australia' ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / museumvictoria.com.au
  14. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica : White Australia Policy
  15. ^ Brij V. Lal, Kate Fortune: The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press, 2000, ISBN 082482265X , p. 621
  16. ↑ a b Fact sheet - Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy ( Memento of the original from December 13, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 2, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  17. ↑ The Great Shearer's Strike of 1891 , n.a., on australianworkersheritagecentre.com.au. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  18. ↑ Radical Chinese labor in Australian history , December 2015, at marxistleftreview.org. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  19. ^ Stefanie Affeldt: Consuming Whiteness. Australian Racism and the 'White Sugar' Campaign . Lit-Verlag, Münster 2014, ISBN 3-64390-569-6 , pp. 152-188, online
  20. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 14, dated June 2015, on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 22, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  21. ↑ Text passages from 1932 (English) . On vrrom.na.gov.au. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  22. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 16, dated June 2015, to Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 20, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  23. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 17, dated June 2015, on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  24. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Pp. 18-19, dated June 2015, to Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  25. ↑ John Rickard: White, Sir Thomas Walter (1888–1957) , from 2002, on Australian Dictionary of Biography . Retrieved April 7, 2017
  26. ^ Refugee crises and the sad legacy of the 1938 Evian conference , September 23, 2015, on Brookings. Retrieved April 7, 2017
  27. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 20, dated June 2015, on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  28. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 21, dated June 2015, on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 20, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  29. ^ White Australia Policy begins , o.A., at National Museum Australia. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  30. ^ Graham Freudenberg: Calwell, Arthur Augustus (1896–1973) , o.A., on Australian Dictionary of Biography . Retrieved April 7, 2017
  31. ^ Karen Agutter: Migrant Hostels and Work Camps . In: Sa History Hub undated, accessed May 2, 2020
  32. ↑ Popular or Perish , on New Geography, undated, accessed May 2, 2020
  33. ↑ The Snowy Mountains Scheme , June 1, 2007. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  34. ↑ A History of the Department of Immigration - Managing Migration to Australia ( Memento of the original from February 26, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . P. 20, dated June 2015, on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 19, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  35. ↑ a b c Federal Register of Legislation , from 2001, on Australian government. Retrieved May 8, 2017
  36. ↑ a b c d e Janet Phillips, Harriet Spinks: Immigration detention in Australia , April 2, 2013, on aph.gov.au. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  37. ↑ "'Not welcome' in Australia: from Tampa refugee to Fulbright scholar, via New Zealand" The Guardian from June 19, 2019
  38. ^ A b Excisions from the Migration Zone — Policy and Practice (PDF), March 1, 2004, to the Australian Parliament. Retrieved December 8, 2019
  39. ^ What is Mandatory Detention? , o. A., on "The Asylum & Refugee Law". Retrieved April 2, 2017
  40. ^ Ting Walker: The High Court Decision to Malayian Solution , November 25, 2011, on ABC. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  41. ↑ Fergal Davis: The failure of Australia's 'Malaysia Solution' is a positive step for refugees , September 4, 2011, on The Guardian. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  42. ↑ Asylum seekers arriving in Australia by boat to be resettled in Papua New Guinea , dated July 19, 2013, on ABC. Retrieved April 4, 2017
  43. ^ Leonore Taylor: Rudd announces deal to send all asylum boat arrivals to Papua New Guinea. In: The Guardian. July 19, 2013, accessed March 20, 2018 .
  44. ↑ Scott Morrison announces closure of four immigration detention centers , January 14, 2014, on the Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved April 2, 2017
  45. ^ Pontville detention center , 2014, on Australian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  46. ↑ Detention facilities locations , o. A., on Department of Immigration and Border Protect. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  47. ↑ a b Immigration Detention and Community Statistics Summery ( Memento of the original from March 13, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , dated December 31, 2016, to Department of Immigration and Border Protection . Retrieved April 2, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  48. ↑ Australia Will Close Detention Center on Manus Island, but Still Won't Accept Asylum Seekers , August 17, 2016, on the New York Times. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  49. ↑ Manus Island detention center to close by year's end, inquest told , February 17, 2017, on The Guardian . Retrieved April 2, 2017
  50. ↑ Scores of detained asylum seekers take Australian cash and return home , March 1, 2017, on Reuters . Retrieved April 2, 2017
  51. ↑ Eric Tlozek: Page no longer available , search in web archives: Chief Justice finds Manus Island detention center is actually closed , on ABC News. Retrieved April 4, 2017@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.abc.net.au
  52. ↑ Immigration detention locations ( memento of the original from April 1, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , o. A., on Department of Immigration and Border Protect. Retrieved April 2, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  53. ↑ Immigration detention ( Memento of the original from April 1, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , o. A., on Department of Immigration and Border Protect. Retrieved April 2, 2017 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.border.gov.au
  54. ↑ Bridging Visa , n.a., on Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  55. ↑ Australia's asylum policy, August 31, 2001, on BBC. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  56. ↑ Angela Antenero: Lack of media access into detention centers is shaping the asylum seeker conversation in Australia , March 18, 2016, on International Business Times . Retrieved April 2, 2017
  57. ↑ Stephanie Andersen: Australia's detention centers a crime against humanity, says submission before ICC , February 17, 2017, on ABC. Retrieved April 2, 2017
  58. ↑ Updated: immigration snapshot , dated March 30, 2017, on Australian Human Rights Commission. Retrieved May 5, 2017
  59. ↑ Michael Koziol: "Cutting through the claims: the refugee medical debate, explained" Sydney Morning Herald of February 14, 2019
  60. ↑ Zoe Tidman: "Doctors loose power to send seriously ill asylum seekers on Iceland detention centers to Australia"