Persian Gulf Residency

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The Persian Gulf Residency, also known as the Bushire Residency after its seat , was the fulcrum of indirect British rule in the region. It existed from 1822 to 1971. In contrast to India, prior to 1890 direct colonial possession of the areas was waived. The resident (PRPG; Balyuz al-Khalij ) was based in Bushir until 1946 , then in Bahrain until 1971 . The region was initially of economic importance due to its natural sponges and pearl fishing . The two telegraph cables laid in 1865-69 enabled direct contact between the mother country and India. The opening of the Suez Canal in the same year also increased the strategic importance of the Persian Gulf. The volume of trade, apart from the ports of Basra and Muscat, remained comparatively low until 1930. After 1924, oil production began to gain in importance.

history

The economic interest of the East India Company was initially limited to the Persian north side of the Gulf, where the first Persia Agency was founded in Jask in 1619 . After the Portuguese were expelled from the island of Hormuz in 1622, it was moved to the former Gombroon and now renamed Bandar Abbas . The port remained the headquarters until it was destroyed by the French in 1759. The factories of Shiraz (founded 1617), Isfahan (1617), Basra (1635–57, again from 1723), Bandar Rig (only 1755–6) and Bushir were subordinate to it (1763). Brokers operated in Kermanshah (1720s) and Muscat (around 1758). The resident received his instructions from the governor of the presidency in Bombay . The administrative unit was called after the new headquarters Basrah Agency from 1763 to 1778, then until 1822 Bushire Agency, which in that year still the area of ​​the Lower Gulf Agency (1811-22; Qatif and Bahrain) was added, which also included the area of ​​the former Muscat Agency (c. 1758-1810) included. Between 1797 and 1819 it became necessary to send several armed naval expeditions against the Pirate Coast to protect the traders . Strategic interests were touched when Fath Ali Shah concluded the Franco-Persian alliance with Napoleon in 1807 . In 1809, after the end of this alliance, the political influence of the British in the region increased again. 1822, when the scope of the Regulating Act of 1773 was extended to the Persian Gulf, is the actual founding year of the Persian Gulf Residency as a political instrument until the Consulate General in Fars was created in 1878. The first resident cum consul was John MacLeod .

Victorian era to World War I

In contrast to India, the British long renounced formal protectorate treaties after the treaties with the rulers of Bahrain, the Pirate Coast (after 1853, “pacified Oman”) and Muscat were concluded. These only became more common from the 1880s, when the British showed in fear of Russian advance southward. This phase came to an end with the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1907) when the powers Afghanistan and Persia, without consulting those affected, neutralized as "independent" buffer states.

Insofar as treaties were concluded with the individual rulers, they first aimed (until 1853) at a ban on slave hunting , piracy and the protection of stranded ships. Thereafter, it was pushed for an abolition of the slave trade , at the same time one interfered in succession disputes. From the 1880s onwards, agreements that stipulated tariffs, banned arms imports and exports, and required rulers to allow their external relations (which was largely defined) to be handled only by the British became more common. British (white) nationals were subject to extraterritoriality under criminal law. At the turn of the century, the British began to have monopolies on postal and telegraph services. After the First World War , when Iraq became the British mandate of the League of Nations , control of regional oil resources became paramount. Some of the rulers of the protective states of Trucical Oman were granted the right to gun salutes from the 1880s , analogous to the Indian princely states . Oman has been under partial British protectorate since the treaty of 1809 and - after its most valuable part of the country, the island of Zanzibar , had been taken from it in 1890 - but it had been completely dependent on them since around 1900, in the language of the diplomats it was only claimed that one has a "special contractual relationship", but the sultan is an independent ruler.

The Ottoman Empire expanded its influence over the tribes on the Arabian Peninsula in the second half of the 19th century. In 1871-2, Hasa and Qatar were occupied (until 1916). The tribes in the country surrendered, and the British were cautious , especially in the long struggle between the Bin Rashid and Bin Saud clans .

After 1892, sheikdom ships were allowed to fly the British flag on the Arabian Peninsula. Their citizens were outside their home though as British subjects (not subjects ) were those as protected persons or dependents equated approximate.

Lord Curzon toured the region from 1889–90 and again as Indian viceroy in 1903. Between 1907 and 1910, at least 30,000 Martini-Henry rifles , 90,000 of which had been bought by German and French arms dealers from Australian and New Zealand stocks , arrived via the Persian Gulf Kandahar and from there to the Afghan border region. A naval blockade from 1911 onwards prevented this weapon smuggling, which was a threat to the British.

First World War

From the end of 1914, the uprising movement of indigenous tribes against the British troops invading Persia began in the mountainous hinterland of Bushir, inspired by the German former consul Wilhelm Wassmuss . Until 1917 they controlled a large part of south-western Persia. From the British side, the South Persian Rifles were recruited as - not overly reliable - auxiliary forces. The fighting gave rise to the construction of modern roads from Bushir inland, and a narrow-gauge railway was set up.

The commander of the expeditionary force for the conquest of Mesopotamia Percy Zachariah Cox also acted as resident, but delegated this function. Qatar officially became a British protectorate in 1916. When Ibn Saud refused to give support to the Ottoman Sultan during World War I, the British allied with him. The agreement, concluded after a meeting with Cox, resulted in an independent state. Through a clever combination of armed force and diplomacy, the Saudis, members of the Puritan Wahhabi sect of Islam, succeeded in expanding their power over the next decade. The final form of the state known as Saudi Arabia is enshrined in the 1927 Treaty of Jeddah . Border issues in desert areas were not resolved until the second half of the 20th century.

From 1920

Invasion 1941

The discovery of petroleum increased the strategic importance of the region. The airports were also important for the passenger service to India set up by Imperial Airways (later BOAC ) in 1932.

On August 25, 1941 , British and Soviet troops invaded Iran and held it until 1946. From November 28 to December 1, 1943, the Allied Tehran Conference took place.

After 1947

In the Dhofar region of Oman, British and Iranian troops fought the Dhofar Liberation Front, which has been active since 1963 (after merger and renaming from 1968: Popular Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Arabian Gulf (PFLOAG), arab.al-Jabha al-Sha ' abiya li-Tahrir al-Khalij al-'Arabi al-Muhtall, from 1974: Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO)). The rebellion was declared over in January 1976, although there were isolated incidents up until 1979. As early as 1970, Sultan Qaboos ibn Said, with the approval and support of the British, overthrew his father Said ibn Taimur .

organization

The entire executive staff, until 1860 two, later never more than 7-9 people, were recruited until 1947 from the Foreign Department of the Indian Civil Service (ICS), whose diplomatic service was officially called Indian Political Service (IPS) since 1937 . The post, as a 2nd class resident, was unpopular because of its uncomfortable climate. Medium-sized batches, many of them Indians, belonged to the Unconvenated Service (UCS, from 1892 Provincial Civil Service ) or the regionally recruited Subordinate Civil Service (SCS, founded in 1892) from Indians and Persians. The doctors ( surgeon, 1901: 650 Rs. Pm) came from the IMS, usually one each in Bushir, Muscat and Basidu. The resident was since the establishment of a general consulate district in Fars, responsible for southern Persia, from 1878 to 1946 always also consul. In this capacity he represented and reported on the Legation in Tehran to the Foreign Office in London, and as resident he was responsible for the Government of India (GoI), a dual responsibility that often led to complications, especially after the First World War . The resident, if he came from the military, usually had the rank of colonel or captain in the 19th century. S. In 1860 he received a monthly salary of Rs 2400 , his assistant received Rs 500 (1900: 800), native agents between Rs 80 and 120 (Rs 50-200).

Subordinate agencies, usually under a native agent ( wakil ), existed in Bahrain (1822 / 34–1971), Shiraz (until 1903, then consulate until 1951), Basidu (around 1860–1935), Lingah (1830–1910, 1924–29 ), Gwadar (1880-1958), Bampur (1901-4), Kermanshah, Kuwait (1899-1904) u. a. From 1880 to 1931 there were outposts in Jask and Chabahar under the Muscat agent (1867-1951). The labor costs for native workers were only about a tenth of those for the English.

1822-78

The resident had 1-3 assistants (Europeans or Anglo-Indians) and 1-2 Munshis (locally recruited Muslims) and controlled the agents in:

  • Eastern Arabia: 1) Bahrain, 2) Qatif (moved to Sharjah 1823), 3) Muscat (1840–43 and 1867–1951 also consul; including Gwadar)
  • Persian coast under Arab rule: 1) Basidu (seat of the SNOPG, and each with its own agent for slavery and bunker coals, 2) Lingah, 3) Mughu (1823–30)
  • Inner Persia: 1) Shiraz, 2) Kermanshah
Consular district

After the resident became consul general for Fars, Khusistan and Laristan (1878–1946), responsibilities within the residency were hardly changed. There was a vice-consul who was always the resident's first assistant until 1946, after which a member of the Levant Consular Service of the Foreign Office (FO) took over this position . The agencies in the Persian inland were upgraded to consulates, also in personal union, the heads of which initially often came from the IETD. New (vice) consulates were set up in Ahvaz (1904–51), Muhammarah (1890-1951; paid for by the FO) and Bandar Abbas (1900–31).

The total budget of the residency in financial year 1899 was Rs 626,870 (£ 41,348), of which Rs 143,585 staff costs, the remainder for the maintenance of the gunboats HMS Sphinx and HMIS Lawrence and the delegated Indian troops. The staff of the post and telegraph stations were paid by the IETD.

1946-1971

The residence was moved to Bahrain in 1946. The subordinate agencies were divided into:

  • Bahrain agent who was also responsible for Qatar until 1949 and for Trucical Oman until 1962. The latter was called Sharaj Agent, then Political Officer Trucical States (POTG). After 1962 this post was divided into:
    • Political Officer Trucical States Dubai
    • Abu Dhabi agent
  • Qatar Agent (1954-71)
  • Kuwait agent
  • Muscat Agent & Consul, Consul General from 1951.

Judiciary

The resident was also the judge of the British who enjoyed extraterritoriality. Disputes between the British and locals were initially decided by the local ruler. From 1861 so-called Agency Courts were set up, which took on the responsibility for civil law disputes between the British (after 1909 over all foreigners) and locals. The competencies were regulated by the GoI for the Resident Court in 1889 and the Agency Courts only in 1913.

military

Before 1880, up to two-thirds of the ICS's staff were recruited from white officers in the Indian Army . In times of peace only a comparatively small contingent of troops from the Indian army was maintained on Bushir, but these were quickly supported by reinforcements landed from gunboats if necessary. The commanding naval officer of the Gulf Squadron held the title of Senior Marine Officer from 1821-30 , then Senior Naval Officer in the Persian Gulf (SNOPG). At the time of the sailors the squadron had five to seven ships, after the introduction of steam propulsion four to six ships that operated diplomacy . They were stationed in the port of Basidu (island Qeschm ) from 1823 until 1911 when they were moved to the offshore island Henjam . The next relocation took place under Iranian pressure in 1935 to Ras al-Jufair (Bahrain). This base has been used by the 5th US Fleet since November 1971 to defend American interests. Smaller army and air force bases were established in the 20th century in Muscat (Army: 1913–21), Bahrain, Basra (RAF: 1915–59), Oman (RAF: 1932–77) and Sharaj (Army: 1951–71, RAF: 1932–71). Dug up locally, but commanded by officers of the Indian Army, the Sistan Levy Corps from 1915, renamed the Muscat Levy Corps after 1921 , the South Persian Rifles (1916-21) and the Trucical Oman Levies, which were called Trucical Oman Scouts from 1955 (1951 -71). In World War II, local soldiers served as RAF Levies.

telegraph

After the intercontinental telegraph cables were built, the stations were managed by seconded personnel from the British India Telegraph Department (IETD). The same was true after the establishment of a British postal monopoly in the areas of the Arabian Gulf coast.

Local staff

Each agency had local staff (monthly salaries 1901) whose activities were designated as follows:

A broker (Hindi: dallal ) was a local trader at the time of the East India Company , later they took over limited representative and spy activities. Even the agents ( native agents ) of smaller posts were recruited from Indian Hindus until 1830, then Muslims. The clerk or munshi (80-150 Rs.) Was the clerk responsible for the daily administration, often Armenians or Indians, but Munshi could also designate an interpreter. Often there was a dragoman (analogous to the mir munshi in India) who advised the political agent on questions of local customs. The Newswriter ( akhbar nawis ), like their colleagues in Rajasthan , had the task of providing information to the British.

The shroff (from Arabic saraf ), also called daftardar or tahsildar , of an agency was the accountant responsible.

As for auxiliary staff, there were usually several bhisti so water carriers (8–12¼ Rs.), Farrashin den (uniformed) pedell (11 Rs.), Naturally one or more (night) guards (12¼ Rs.), As well as the essential sweepers, khalasi and punka wallas (Rs 10 each). Cussids ( qasids ) were couriers who traveled the Persian hinterland, when they were mounted they were called ghulam. Your payment was initially speed-dependent, then there was 12 Rs a month. After 1877, the use of the Persian state post became common.

literature

Practically all works on the subject are based only on British sources:

  • Aitchison, CU (Ed.); A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads ... Vol. XI Containing the Treaties & ct. Relating to Aden and the South Western Coast of Arabia, the Arab Principalities in the Persian Gulf ... Revised and updated to 1930 ...; Delhi 1933, reprint 1987, ISBN 1-85207-076-5
  • Lorimer, John George; Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf; Calcutta 1915 (multiple volumes)
  • Onley, James; The Arabian Frontier of the British Raj; Oxford 2007; ISBN 978-0-19-922810-2 (also Arabic sources)
  • Tuson, Penelope; The records of the British residency and agencies in the Persian Gulf; London 1979; Sert .: India Office Library and Records (London): Guides to the archive groups IOR R, 15; ISBN 0-903359-16-2

Annual reports appeared in Calcutta under changing titles a. a .: Administration report of the Persian Gulf, [Annual] Report on the administration of the Persian Gulf Political Residency and Muscat Political Agency (1873-1904), Report on the administration of the Bushire Residency including that of the Muscat Political Agency, Persian Gulf Trade Reports (1905-40), The Persian Gulf Gazette (London et al.)

  • Saldanha, Jerome (all Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta): Précis of ...
    • ... Bahrain Affairs, 1854–1904, 1904
    • ... Koweit Affairs, 1896–1904, 1904
    • ... Persian Arabistan Affairs, 1903
    • ... Turkish Expansion on the Arab Littoral ..., 1904
    • ... on Naval Arrangements in the Persian Gulf, 1862–1905, 1906
    • ... the Affairs of the Persian Coast and Islands, 1854–1906, 1906

Archival materials: Numerous British archival materials have appeared in print in the Near & Middle East series of the Cambridge Archive Editions .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Note: The ranking of the titles Resident (= Factor) and Agent was reversed by the end of the 18th century. Onley (2007), p. 13
  2. ↑ the present-day United Arab Emirates
  3. ^ Prohibition of private trade by administrative staff of the East India Company.
  4. ↑ from January 1st Victoria also became "Empress of India"
  5. ↑ Bahrain: Prohibition of Piracy and Protection from Looting of Merchant Ships, February 5, 1820, General Treaty, February 23, 1820. Several agreements on the pirate coast in 1820 (annually extended peace agreements, permanent from 1853). Nutmeg: 3 contracts 1822. Aitchison (1933), pp. 233, 240f., 248, 288
  6. ↑ Russia occupied Samarkand in 1868 , Khiva in 1873 , Merw in 1884 .
  7. ^ List of agreements: Aitchison, CU (ed.); A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads ... Vol. XI Containing the Treaties & ct. Relating To Aden and the South Western Coast of Arabia, the Arab Principalities in the Persian Gulf ... Revised and updated to 1930 ...; Delhi 1933, reprint 1987, ISBN 1-85207-076-5
  8. ↑ Curzon, George; Persia and the Persian Question; London 1892, 2 vols., Reprint 2001: ISBN 978-1402161797
  9. ↑ Herbert, Edwin; Small Wars and Skirmishes 1902-18; Nottingham 2003; ISBN 1-901543-05-6 , p. 99.
  10. ↑ cf. RM Burrell; Arms and Afghans in Makrān: An Episode in Anglo-Persian Relations 1905-1912; Bull. SOAS, Vol. 49, No. 1, In Honor of Ann KS Lambton (1986), pp. 8-24.
  11. ^ Aitchison (1933), p. 206.
  12. ↑ Bahrain: 1932, Kuwait: 1938, Qatar: 1940, Abu Dhabi: 1958. As early as 1924/5 there was a first concession in the Basra region. Onley (2007), p. 34.
  13. ^ Lists of incumbents in Onley (2007), app. B.
  14. ↑ for details of the ICS see: The Imperial Gazetteer of India: The Indian Empire, Vol. IV: Administrative; Oxford 1909
  15. ↑ belonged to the Sultan of Muscat. Because of its proximity to India, the head of the telegraph station, who was also a political agent, reported from 1880 to the agents of Kalat and Baluchistan (until 1930) and the Assistant Political Agent for Makran in Karachi. Onsley (2007), p. 235.
  16. ↑ approx. 1845-95 of the legation in Tehran resp. the Consulate General Meshed responsible. 1895 Appointment of the first consul (Sir Percy Sykes ), Bushir became responsible in 1902, the GoI bore half the costs. Onsley (2007), p. 235.
  17. ↑ chap. 4 in Onley (2007) analyzes the operating costs in detail using the example of Bahrain.
  18. ↑ Onsley (2007), pp. 253ff.
  19. ↑ The Gwadar area, which also belongs to Oman, was sold to Pakistan in 1958. Onsley (2007), p. 236.
  20. ^ Order-in-Council, implemented in 1919. Full text in: Saldanha, Bahrein, App. H, pp. 161-5.
  21. ↑ spoken SNOP-G
  22. ↑ cf. Preston, Antony; Major, john; Send a gunboat! ...; London 1967
  23. ↑ Contracts with: Muscat 1864, 1865 (Telegraph), Kuwait 1904 (Post), Bahrain 1912 (T), Qatar. Contracts in: Aitchinson (1933)
  24. ↑ after Onsley (2007), pp. 248, 251
  25. ↑ If this position was held by a white man, the designation would be Oriental Secretary.
  26. ↑ In contrast to this, the same term in India denotes an independent local banker (see Hundi )
  27. ↑ singular: farrash; corresponding to the peon in south India, chaprassi in north India or puttiwalla.

See also