Starlings

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Starlings
Shepherd Maina (Acridotheres tristis)

Shepherd Maina ( Acridotheres tristis )

Systematics
Subclass : New-jawed birds (Neognathae)
Order : Passerines (Passeriformes)
Subordination : Songbirds (passeri)
without rank: Passerida
Superfamily : Muscicapoidea
Family : Starlings
Scientific name
Sturnidae
Rafinesque , 1815

The starlings (Sturnidae) are one of the most species-rich families of songbirds (Passeres), which belong to the passerine birds (Passeriformes). They are among the most widespread bird families in the world. The family includes 34 genera and nearly 120 species , of which two genera and six species are extinct .

Starlings are small to medium-sized songbirds with strong feet. Their plumage is diverse, from typically black or dark in color to multi-colored species. Most species have a slightly metallic to strongly iridescent metallic sheen and build their nests for the most part in cavities in which they lay pale light blue or white eggs, which are often speckled. The mostly very sociable birds often appear in flocks and are characterized by a mostly vigorous and direct flight. They like to live in open landscapes with light trees, in some regions of the world also in forests. They feed primarily on insects and fruits and are often viewed as omnivores , as they have also tapped some of the remains of human food as a source. Some species live as cultural followers in the vicinity of settlements.

Starlings are originally only found in Africa and Eurasia . However, several European and Asian species have been introduced to North America and Australia and New Zealand , respectively . The most widespread representative of the family worldwide is the star ( Sturnus vulgaris ), which is the namesake and type species for the genus.

features

height and weight

The starlings (Sturnidae) are small to medium-sized songbirds (Passeres) from the order of the passerine birds (Passeriformes). The smallest and lightest starlings include the species from the genus Poeoptera , such as the Kenrick star ( Poeoptera kenricki ) with a length of about 15 cm and the Abbott star ( Poeoptera femoralis ) with a weight of about 34 grams. The largest star is the long-tailed gloss star ( Lamprotornis caudatus ) with a length of up to 54 cm, of which about 60% is attributable to the tail. The Weishneckel ( Streptocitta albicollis ) with up to 290 grams and 50 cm in length is one of the heaviest starling species . This makes it almost as big as the long-tailed gloss star, but about twice as heavy.

Plumage and coloring

Tricolor Starling ( Lamprotornis superbus ) - Serengeti National Park, Tanzania

Their plumage is diverse, from typically black or dark monochrome species such as the single-color star ( Sturnus unicolor ) to multi-colored species such as the splendid star ( Lamprotornis splendidus ), whose plumage has a metallic sheen. The gloss ranges from slightly shiny metallic colors such as the Star ( Sturnus vulgaris ) to highly iridescent , shiny metallic colors such as in most species of the genus authentics starlings ( Lamprotornis ). The dazzling effect is created in four different ways.

All starlings, including the African starlings, get their iridescent plumage from rod-shaped melanosomes in the melanocytes , which produce the pigment melanin and are arranged under a thin keratin film . The refractions of light (interference) on the keratin film cause the metallic sheen of the colors. In the feathers of the African starlings, three other forms of melanosomes that are optically relevant were found. One form is characterized by flatter melanosomes, which make it possible to make the structures thinner and more densely packed or to form multiple layers. Another form consists of hollow melanosomes, which cause strong optical refractions at the interfaces between the air and the melanin and thus create structural colors without the presence of a pigment . The third form consists of a combination of the two previously mentioned in platelet form, which influence the coloring through single-layer, multi-layered and alternating arrangement of the platelet shapes. Overall, however, there is only one of these variants per species.

eyes

Pagoda star ( Sturnus pagodarum )

The bird eyes of starlings and probably most other bird species, except for example nocturnal birds, see their environment differently than we humans. In contrast to humans, the star has four and not only three types of photoreceptors (also called photoreceptors ) on the retina . In addition to the thinner rod-shaped receptors responsible for black and white vision (Cellula optica bacilliformis), four cone-shaped receptor types (Cellula optica coniformis) are responsible for color vision in starlings (tetrachromatic vision). Three of the four cone-shaped receptor types cause the area of ​​light that is visible to humans (trichromatic vision) to perceive the three primary colors red, green and blue. The fourth receptor is responsible for the absorption of the short-wave ultraviolet light, 1–380 nm (WHO), which is not visible to humans. The incidence of light stimulates the various types of receptors within the strongly folded membranes, which are provided with different colored oil droplets, with different intensities. The responsible receptors react differently to the different wavelengths of light, so that the different colors and hues can be perceived. The additional UV receptor compared to humans allows starlings to perceive our environment in a much more differentiated or differentiated way than humans are able to. With the help of the UV receptors, they are able to better recognize differences between conspecifics and the degree of ripeness of the fruit or other UV-reflecting traces.

Vocalizations

The starlings utter their sounds in complex and varied ways, which is a form of communication. Some species use their gifts to imitate the sounds of other animals and birds. By imitating a predator or warning shouts, they drive out competitors who are in the forage competition and can thus gain advantages in foraging for food. Others also imitate parts of human speech or car alarm systems.

distribution and habitat

Amethyst gloss star ( Cinnyricinclus leucogaster )

Most of the occurring species of starlings live in the so-called Old World of Europe, Asia and Africa as well as the Asia-Pacific island world, where they occur naturally. The preferred habitat of the starlings, depending on the species, include forests, open grasslands or savannas with individual trees, bush landscapes but also farmland with orchards or grain fields. Starlings also like to live in an urban environment.

Several European bird species, including the starling (Sturnus vulgaris), were introduced to North America at the end of the 19th century by the American Acclimatization Society. The reason for this approach is said to have been that all birds that appear in Shakespeare's literature were also wanted in the USA. Hundreds of starlings were released in Central Park in New York in 1890/91. In just 60 years, the invasive star spread from the east coast to the west coast of North America. The population at that time was estimated to be around 200 million birds.

Few species have also immigrated or brought with them as far as Australia and New Zealand. Attempts are made to keep the numbers of invasive species that endanger the native bird world, but also in some cases significant damage to agriculture, under control.

Way of life

Red shoulder gloss star ( Lamprotornis nitens )

The species essentially feed on insects and fruits, with certain species specializing in particular insects and / or fruits. Most starlings, however, have a wide variety of species and varieties on the menu and occasionally they also feed on nectar. Starlings are often found in urban environments and have often also tapped human leftovers as a source of food, as is the case, for example, with the red-shouldered starling ( Lamprotornis nitens ) and are therefore often regarded as omnivores.

Most species of starlings are gregarious birds that usually appear in smaller and larger groups up to large flocks outside the breeding season. Depending on the species and region, groups of hundreds to thousands of birds travel together and like to invade fruit-growing areas, where they sometimes destroy significant parts of the harvests. The fruit growers try to protect themselves from this in a wide variety of ways. As the best affordable and effective protection, nets over the fruit-bearing plants have often prevailed. In Europe, formation flights ( murmurations ) with up to millions of birds have been observed during bird migration from northern Europe to North Africa . In some countries, such as Italy and Egypt, especially at this time, the starlings are caught with large nets and are then often eaten.

Reproduction

Clutch of a splendid starling ( Lamprotornis splendidus ), MHNT 227 Archipelago des Bijagos RdN

During the breeding season, however, most types of togetherness are prescribed and can sometimes be supported by non-breeding conspecifics or the young of the last brood while rearing the juveniles in foraging and feeding the offspring. Many species of starlings typically build their nests in natural tree hollows, which can also have been made by woodpeckers and other bird species. In addition, various types of suitable cavities, such as incubators and tubes, are used. Others build spherical or cup-shaped nests that are open at the top. You make your nests from the locally available materials, such as small twigs, leaves and petioles, grasses, mosses, snake skins, wool, dung, feathers, ends of tendrils and other materials that appear suitable such as paper and plastic.

As a rule, they lay between two and eight white or colored (then usually bluish) eggs, which are mostly only hatched by the females alone. The speckled eggs are believed to have emerged as a protective response to brood parasites such as the cuckoo during evolution .

When feeding the juveniles , the UV vision of the starlings offers a considerable advantage. Especially in the case of species that nest in darkened cavities, the edges of the beak and especially the beak angles were clearly UV-reflecting. This should make targeted feeding of the parents much easier, but it still needs more detailed investigation.

Dangers and losses

Balistar ( Leucopsar rothschildi )

The biodiversity on our planet, especially in the case of endemic species, is often very threatened by man-made changes, such as bringing non-native animals such as rats, cats and dogs that regularly unintentionally or intentionally traveled on sailing ships. The settlement and the associated changes in the landscape, such as the deforestation of forest areas and the cultivation of monocultures on islands and continents, lead in some areas to severe endangerment or even destruction of native species. Some species of starlings, especially those endemic to islands, are sometimes extremely endangered (critically endangered). The Balistar ( Leucopsar rothschildi ), which in the 19th century was still described as a widespread or common species on Bali, is such an endangered species. During investigations in 1980, the researchers found only around 200 specimens in the wild. Since then the stock has been continuously reduced. In 2004 only the small number of 24 free-living specimens was found. According to one of the last counts in 2014, 35 Balistars were found in the West Bali National Park and 13 pairs after a release program on Nusa Penida. Species that have been extinct since the beginning of the 19th century are the Kosrae Singstar ( Aplonis corvina ), the Pelzelnstar ( Aplonis Pelzeln ), the Norfolk Star ( Aplonis fusca ), the Hop Star ( Fregilupus varius ) and the Rodrigues Star ( Necropsar rodericanus ).

Family starlings (Sturnidae) - tribe, genus and species

Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris )

118 species in 34 genera are currently counted, of which two genera and a total of six species are considered extinct. Some starlings were regrouped based on genetic testing results. This resulted in new taxonomically inconsistent groupings that required a summary. This led to the fact that subfamilies and tribes were formed ( Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy ) and genera were introduced, which are incorporated in the following family tree. Science is convinced that the taxonomic classifications within starlings, but also other birds, will still change regularly due to more recent genetic engineering analyzes and methods.

The starlings can currently be divided into six larger groups:

  1. Amethyst gloss star and Madagascar star with two species in the genera Cinnyricinclus and Hartlaubis
  2. African starlings with 34 species in the genera Lamprotornis , Hylopsar , Notopholia , Poeoptera , Grafisa , Speculipastor , Neocichla and Saroglossa
  3. Red-winged starlings with eleven species in the genus Onychognathus (1.)
  4. Eurasian starlings with 26 species in the genera Acridotheres , Sturnus , Agropsar , Leucopsar , Gracupica , Sturnornis , Sprodiopsar , Sturnia , Pastor , Creatophora
  5. South Asian and Pacific starlings with 43 species in the genera Aplonis , Mino , Basilornis , Sarcops , Streptocitta , Enodes , Scissirostrum , Ampeliceps , Gracula , Fregilupus
  6. Two species of Filipino starlings in the genus Rhabdornis

(1.) = The Neumann starling ( Onychognatus neumannii ) is now listed as a separate species due to recent analyzes.

Weaver star ( Aplonis metallica )

Subspecies are not considered in the following list. They are to be listed under the descriptions of the species. Unclear classifications as to whether they are subspecies or species are assessed as a subspecies. The classification of the species marked with a question mark (?) Is provisional until genetic engineering has been clarified.

Subfamily Graculinae

Tribe Rhabdornithini (Filipino Starlings)

Tribe Graculini (South Asian and Pacific Starlings)

Papuaatzel ( Mino dumonti ) left and Beo ( Gracula religiosa ) right.
  • Genus Gracula Linnaeus , 1758 - five species
  • Genus Enodes Temminck , 1839
    • Red- browed cataract ( Enodes erythrophris ( Temminck , 1824))
Black-necked star in Shenzhen ( Gracupica nigricollis )
The viewing point of the rose starlings ( Pastor roseus )

Subfamily Sturninae

Tribus Sturnini (Eurasian Starlings)

  • Genus Sturnus Linnaeus , 1758 - two species
  • Genus Pastor Temminck , 1815
    • Rose star ( Pastor roseus ( Linnaeus , 1758))
  • Genus Leucopsar Stresemann , 1912
    • Balistar ( Leucopsar rothschildi ( Stresemann , 1912))
Black-necked flying star ( Gracupica nigricollis )
  • Genus Spodiopsar Sharpe , 1889 - two species
    • White-cheeked star , also gray or ash starling ( Spodiopsar cineraceus ( JF Gmelin , 1789))
    • Silk star ( Spodiopsar sericeus ( Temminck , 1835))
  • Genus Sturnia Lesson , 1837 - four species
    • Mandarin star ( Sturnia sinensis ( JF Gmelin , 1788))
    • Pagoda star ( Sturnia pagodarum ( JF Gmelin , 1789))
    • Andaman star ( Sturnia erythropygius ( Blyth , 1846))
    • Gray-headed starfish ( Sturnia malabaricus ( JF Gmelin , 1789))
  • Genus Mainas ( Acridotheres Vieillot , 1816) - ten species
    • Ufermaina ( Acridotheres ginginianus ( Latham , 1790))
    • Shepherd Maina ( Acridotheres tristis ( Linnaeus , 1766))
    • Blackwing starling ( Acridotheres melanopterus ( Daudin , 1800))
    • Burmastar ( Acridotheres burmannicus ( Jerdon , 1862))
    • Collar maina ( Acridotheres albocinctus ( Godwin-Austen & Walden , 1875))
    • Haubenmaina ( Acridotheres cristatellus ( Linnaeus , 1758))
    • Long-headed maina ( Acridotheres grandis ( F. Moore , 1858))
    • Jungle maina ( Acridotheres fuscus ( Wagler , 1827))
    • Pale-back maina ( Acridotheres cinereus ( Bonaparte , 1851))
    • Mohrenmaina ( Acridotheres javanicus ( Cabanis , 1851))

Tribus Cinnyricinclini (Madagascar star and amethyst gloss star)

Red-winged starfish ( Onychognathus morio ) - Cape Town, South Africa

Tribe Onychognathini (Red-winged Starlings)

Tribus Lamprotornini (African Starlings)

  • Genus Hylopsar Boetticher , 1940 - two species
    • Copper star ( Hylopsar cupreocauda ( Hartlaub , 1857))
    • Velvet star ( Hylopsar purpureiceps ( J. Verreaux & E. Verreaux , 1851))
  • Genus Saroglossa Hodgson , 1844
    • Marble star ( Saroglossa spiloptera ( Vigors , 1831))
  • Genus Pholia Reichenow , 1900
    • Rust- bellied star ( Pholia sharpii ( Jackson , 1898))
King's Star ( Lamprotornis regius ), Wachile Road, Ethiopia

Systematics

The starlings occur in their origin in the Old World up to the Asia-Pacific island world and were named Sturnidae by CS Rafinesque in 1815. GR Gray developed a first taxonomic classification in 1877 with 7 subfamilies at that time. Until the end of the 20th century, the anatomical and morphological investigation methods were regularly used as the basis for the assignment of species. With the development of genetic analysis methods since the 1990s and especially since the beginning of our century, the changes in the taxonomic classification of the species themselves and that of the starlings took off at a rapid pace. Sibley and Ahlquist initially used the DNA – DNA hybrid method in their work and came to the conclusion that the closest related family of the Sturnidae is the family of the Mimidae . Based on their analyzes, they formed the superfamily of the Muscicapoidea , in which today the families of the maggot chopper ( Buphagidae ) form a basal group with mockingbirds (Mimidae) and starlings (Sturnidae) and the dipper ( Cinclidae ) as another basal group with thrushes ( Turdidae) ) and flycatchers ( Muscicapidae ). The mitochondrial and nuclear DNA examination methods used today suggest that even more extensive and detailed determinations can be expected. Dario Zuccon and his colleagues, and in particular Irvy J. Lovette and Dustin R. Rubenstein and colleagues, with their large-scale studies have brought about significant shifts in the classifications within the Sturnidae and Mimidae families as well as changes in naming within the last ten years.

Today, for 98 of the 118 species mentioned above, reliable findings apply in the assignment and are listed in the clade below. In the case of the other species, there are no genetically proven findings in the allocation or require further analysis.

literature

  • F. Gill, D. Donsker: IOC World Bird List 5.2 . In: IOC World Bird List Datasets . 2015, doi : 10.14344 / IOC.ML.5.2 ( worldbirdnames.org [EXCEL]).
  • Rafael Maia, Dustin R. Rubenstein, Matthew D. Shawkey: Key ornamental innovations facilitate diversification in an avian radiation . In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . tape 110 , no. 26 , June 25, 2013, ISSN  0027-8424 , p. 10687-10692 , doi : 10.1073 / pnas.1220784110 ( pnas.org ).
  • Frederike Woog: Seeing and being seen - the color vision of birds. In: The falcon. - Journal for Bird Watchers 5/2009 ( schattenblick.de ).
  • GE Hill, KJ McGraw (Ed.): Bird Coloration. Volume 1: Mechanisms and Measurements. Volume 2: Function and Evolution. 2006.
  • CH Fry, S. Keith, EK Urban: The birds of Africa. Volume VI. Academic Press, London 2000, pp. 593-645.
  • AJFK Craig, CJ Feare: Family Sturnidae (Starlings). In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot, DA Christie (Eds.): Handbook of the birds of the world. Volume 14: Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2009, pp. 654-760.
  • Irby J. Lovette, Dustin R. Rubenstein: A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the starlings (Aves: Sturnidae) and mockingbirds (Aves: Mimidae). Congruent mtDNA and nuclear trees for a cosmopolitan avian radiation. In: Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 44, 2007, pp. 1031-1056. ( Columbia.edu PDF). on columbia.edu, 2015.
  • Dario Zuccon, Eric Pasquet, Per GP Ericson: Phylogenetic relationships among Palearctic – Oriental starlings and mynas (genera Sturnus and Acridotheres: Sturnidae). In: Zoologica Scripta. 37, 2008, pp. 469-481.
  • Steve Mirsky: Shakespeare to Blame for Introduction of European Starlings to US (original title: Call of the Reviled. ) Scientific American, June 2008. ( scientificamerican.com ).
  • A. Cibois * and J. Cracraft (2004), Assessing the passerine `` Tapestry '': phylogenetic relationships of the Muscicapoidea inferred from nuclear DNA sequences Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 32, pp. 264-273.

Web links

Commons : Stare  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b CH Fry, S. Keith, EK Urban: The birds of Africa. Volume VI. Academic Press, London 2000.
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m AJFK Craig, CJ Feare: Family Sturnidae (starlings). In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliot, DA Christie (Eds.): Handbook of the birds of the world. Volume 14: Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2009, pp. 654-760.
  3. ↑ a b c Rafael Maia, Dustin R. Rubenstein, Matthew D. Shawkey: Key ornamental innovations facilitate diversification in an avian radiation . In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . tape 110 , no. 26 , June 25, 2013, ISSN  0027-8424 , p. 10687-10692 , doi : 10.1073 / pnas.1220784110 ( pnas.org ).
  4. ↑ a b Frederike Woog: Seeing and being seen - color vision of birds. in: The falcon. - Journal for Bird Watchers 5/2009. ( Schattenblick.de ).
  5. ↑ Steve Mirsky: Shakespeare to Blame for Introduction of European Starlings to US (original title: Call of the Reviled. ) Scientific American, June 2008. ( scientificamerican.com ).
  6. ↑ Version 2015.2. ( Redlist ). Retrieved July 21, 2015.
  7. ↑ Eduardo de Juana (2014) in: Handbook of the birds of the world, Alive. ( online ). Retrieved July 15, 2015.
  8. ↑ a b Irby J. Lovettea, Dustin R. Rubenstein : A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the starlings (Aves: Sturnidae) and mockingbirds (Aves: Mimidae): Congruent mtDNA and nuclear trees for a cosmopolitan avian radiation . In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . Volume 44 (2007) . Elsevier , April 5, 2007, pp.  1031-1056 (English, online [PDF; 3.1 MB ; accessed on December 12, 2019]).
  9. ↑ a b Dario Zuccon, Eric Pasquet, Per GP Ericson (2008) in: Phylogenetic relationships among Palearctic – Oriental starlings and mynas.