Theodor Kleinschmidt

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Theodor Kleinschmidt

Johann Theodor Kleinschmidt (born March 6, 1834 in Wolfhagen , † April 10, 1881 on the island of Utuan ( Duke of York Group ) in the New Britain archipelago, today: Bismarck Archipelago ) was a businessman , traveler and naturalist .

Life

Childhood, youth and education

Immediately after Theodor Kleinschmidt was born, the family moved to Kassel, where Kleinschmidt subsequently attended secondary school. After graduation, he got a job in the control office of the Main-Weserbahn, but at the same time took drawing lessons at the Academy of Fine Arts. Despite an extraordinary talent, the family's financial situation did not allow for an artistic career. To prepare for a career as a seaman, Kleinschmidt traveled to Bremen in 1856 and went to New York the following year on the Bark Corolian . He first came to East India as an ordinary seaman.

Commercial activity and participation in the Civil War

After Kleinschmidt had to break off his nautical training due to increasing short-sightedness, he started a business in St. Louis ( Missouri ). Here he quickly rose from accountant to authorized signatory and finally to managing director. In 1861 he received US citizenship. To participate in the Civil War, Kleinschmidt volunteered on September 17, 1862 with the 11th Infantry Regiment of the Enrolled Missouri Militia (unit of the Union ). In June / July 1863 and September / October 1864 he took an active part in the war. After a series of promotions, he was last raised to the rank of major and brigade quartermaster of the 3rd Brigade on October 3, 1864. After doing a commercial job in San Francisco, Kleinschmidt and his wife moved to Melbourne around 1872. Since business hopes were not fulfilled here, Kleinschmidt took a job on the Viti Islands (Fiji) the following year . He bought both land and a fleet of vehicles from the British colonial administration, but was financially damaged by the "Cotton and Viti Crash" (1875). Until the offer of the Hamburg Museum Godeffroy to take on a collecting contract on the archipelago, Kleinschmidt remained almost penniless.

Early research trips for the Godeffroy Museum

The Tui Nadrau in the finest tapa dress A classic of Polynesian costume science. Pencil drawing by Theodor Kleinschmidt (October 1877)

From Naikorokoro on Ovalau , Kleinschmidt went on his first excursion to the east coast of Viti Levu in March 1876. In what is now the Verata district of Tailevu Province , he landed at Naloto (Nalotte). The Waindalithi -flow (Waindalidi) he drove about 50 km uphill to Verata Village Bulu, which he took to the starting point for smaller raids. In May Kleinschmidt visited Vanua Levu in the north with the hot springs near Savusavu . In July there was a crossing to the island of Kadavu (Kandavu, south of Suva), where Kleinschmidt climbed Mount Buke Levu (Mount Washington, 838 m above sea level) on the 28th . From the north coast he crossed the Kadavu Passage in August and sailed to Vatulele Island , from whose fauna he described a red crab . On the way back to Naikorokoro, Kleinschmidt made a detour to the island of Yanuda in the lagoon of Beqa (Mbenga). Finally he drove through the Beqa Strait.

Kleinschmidt's notes on his botanical collections and ethnographic observations during the excursion appeared in the Journal of Museum Godeffroy . Kleinschmidt's ethnographic notes about the mountain inhabitants of Viti Levu are due to a subsequent trip (1877/78) .

Relocation to the New Britain archipelago

Theodor Kleinschmidt, stays in the Pacific 1873–1881, contemporary names

After almost seven years in Fiji, the Kleinschmidt couple moved to Samoa. In the weeks before, Kleinschmidt concentrated his collecting activities on the Fiji island of Koro , where he and his wife had lived as neighbors of the missionary teacher Abroso (see below). After arriving in Apia with the schooner Daphne on January 19, 1879, Kleinschmidt set off on an excursion to the Navigator Islands. Soon after, Godeffroy & Son's Samoa headquarters instructed him to move to the Duke of York Islands . In continuation of the work of the late natural scientist Franz Huebner , Kleinschmidt should now travel to the New Britain archipelago , the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides for the Museum Godeffroy and also create scientific and ethnographic collections for these island areas. On the crossing, Kleinschmidt visited the Sikaiana Atoll (Solomon Islands) on March 11th and 13th, 1879 and wrote a first report about it.

In June / July 1879 (?) Kleinschmidt acquired a piece of land in the Duke of York Group on the island of Kabakon, on which he set up a base for his work. After the violent death of Godeffroy's station master Georg Christoph Levison , he saw the situation as too tense to begin research trips.

In September Kleinschmidt and his wife traveled temporarily to Australia. Kleinschmidt had previously allowed men from the island of Utuan, who had sold the property on Kabakon, to harvest crops on a plantation while he was away and thus “preserve” his property for him. To secure the claims, Kleinschmidt also gave the mission teacher Abroso, who was meanwhile employed by the Wesleyan mission on the Duke of York Islands, the order to "look after his island". According to Jakob Anderhandt, this “double agreement” led to conflicts with Abroso and the men from Utuan, which after Kleinschmidt's return formed the basis for his growing tensions with the locals and, in the long term, the reason for his death.

Return to the Duke of York Islands

At the end of their stay in Australia, the Kleinschmidt couple met the South Sea merchant Eduard Hernsheim in Cooktown, Queensland, who offered them a passage to Hunterhafen (Duke of York Island) on the steamer Pacific . Here the couple disembarked at the end of December 1879.

In the following days, Kleinschmidt learned of arguments that had occurred during his absence between Abroso, his wife Karolani, and men from Utuan. Abroso and his wife had set up fishing nets off the island on trips to Kabakon; the Utuan people accused them of "stealing". Conversely, the Utuan harvest team had built a hut village next to Kleinschmidt's planting in order to save the daily boat trip. For Abroso, Kleinschmidt's permission to use the plantation for harvest was thereby overstretched. He and Karolani marched into the settlement in mid-December and burned down several huts - allegedly to defend Kleinschmidt's property. The action had been condemned by Rev. Benjamin Danks, Abroso's superior. Kleinschmidt, on the other hand, took protection of his former neighbor after his return: The arson on Kabakon, he argued, would have been “completely right” because “[h] if [Abroso] hadn't done it, [the Utuan people] might soon have taken one whole village built on the island to justify a new claim to it! ”This was followed by a spring war between Danks and Kleinschmidt as well as the factual exclusion of Abroso from the mission (suspension from duty).

Growing tensions with locals and new settlers

In return for the harvest permit, the Utuan men had promised Kleinschmidt that they would help him out on excursions with rowing teams on his return. As a result of the new tensions, the promise was only kept reluctantly. With the evasive explanation that Kleinschmidt had "only bought the land and not the bush, forest etc. etc. on it", the Utuan people made it clear, according to Anderhandt, "unbeatably diplomatically" that the natural scientist initially bought a part of what he had acquired Claims on Kabakon would have to give up again in order to “show goodwill and demonstrate that at the time, before his departure, with his promise to the men of Utuan to be allowed to harvest from his plantation, he had meant it seriously.” For lack Kleinschmidt would not have gone into such proposals for agreement in terms of subtlety and empathy.

After a vain attempt in May of that year to hire a boat crew on the neighboring island of Kerawara, Kleinschmidt burned down their best house. (Kerawara people had also harvested from the plantation on Kabakon, and some islanders had residences on several of the group's islets.) Kleinschmidt drove down southern Blanche Bay in June that year with five almost kidnapped men who reluctantly followed him after the arson ( Gazelle Peninsula ).

In the following month, financial difficulties forced him to take out a loan from the trading company Hernsheim & Co based in the archipelago and to hire out land purchases from Thomas Farrell, the manager of the Deutsche Handels- und Plantagengesellschaft auf Mioko. In this activity Kleinschmidt acquired several routes up to the middle of 1880, on which other Europeans already held titles. According to an oral report to Eduard Hernsheim, he caused "trouble" for both locals and European new settlers.

In August of that year, the tense situation led to an intrigue by Kleinschmidt against the Reverend George Brown , of whom the naturalist was "jealous" because of his natural history collections. The clergyman owned a steam pinasse for trips in the island area, with which he could penetrate as far as the southeast coast of New Ireland. With his rowers, who were only recruited for a limited period, Kleinschmidt had a limited radius of action that could not bring him beyond the Gazelle Peninsula. He was inferior to the "Pioneer Missionary and Explorer" Brown in terms of mobility. Brown also had access to the hinterland through local staff.

Similar tensions arose with the ornithologist Otto Finsch , who was a guest at Hernsheim & Co on Matupi from August 1880 . The Hernsheim brothers helped Finsch to travel to the Marshall Islands, Gilbert Islands and the Carolines free of charge. In terms of natural history and ethnography, he had a clear knowledge advantage over Kleinschmidt.

Starting in May 1880, Kleinschmidt was supported in his research by the former Marquis de Rays colonist Friedrich Tetzlaff. When he was poached by Hernsheim & Co in November , Kleinschmidt signed two other former Marquis de Rays colonists, the Germans Becker and Schultz, to replace him. It is unclear to what extent they encouraged the last natural history studies.

The conflict with Utuan escalates

On April 9, 1881, Kleinschmidt set out from his house on Mioko Island to hire a rowing team on Utuan for another excursion. The islanders were not informed about the destination and the duration of the trip during the conversation. Rather, they did not find out until the following noon when a Duke of York islander arrived in front of the house that the researcher now intended to explore the entire south of the Birara district ( Gazelle Peninsula ) in a multi-week trip . When the men declared that they did not want to leave for so long, Kleinschmidt fired a warning shot at the Duke of York Islander, who had reported the duration of the trip, according to a local. When the rowing team turned to go anyway, Kleinschmidt threatened to follow them. About a quarter of an hour later he crossed over to Utuan fully armed and with both assistants.

Here Kleinschmidt, Becker and Schultz invaded a village, fired into the bushes and threatened to destroy the settlement. According to a local witness, "the natives hidden behind trees in the bush should hear this". According to a second statement, Kleinschmidt found the village deserted and marched up to a meeting place. After firing several shots here, he would have been attacked by the residents and followed on his escape back to the beach. Even now, Kleinschmidt would have fired several times and ultimately fatally hit a Utuan man with one of his shots. The assistant Becker, who had already arrived at the seashore, would now have been hit by a tomahawk. Schultz would have been slain a few minutes later and Theodor Kleinschmidt would have been the last to be killed.

Kleinschmidt in the media

The course of events was determined during investigations by SMS Habicht in August 1881. In conclusion, the head of the investigation, Consul General Zembsch, stated that the violence committed by the locals was a "not insignificant provocation by Dr. Kleinschmidt ”preceded. In contrast, the media paint a different picture of Kleinschmidt's death. Ms. Kleinschmidt, who allegedly observed the events on Utuan from the house on Mioko through a telescope, reported to the Fiji Times that her husband and his two assistants had already been attacked when they landed on Utuan. This was printed unchecked by the newspaper, as was Ms. Kleinschmidt's claim that her husband had not fired a shot in front of Mioko's house. Rather, the recruited rowing team would simply have left again "without comment" after Kleinschmidt had started his preparations for the excursion.

False report about Kleinschmidt's murder and confusion with Lord Lyttleton, Sydney Morning Herald , July 29, 1881

The first letter reports of Kleinschmidt's death were brought to Hernsheim & Co in Jaluit when the Pacific next arrived in May 1881 . There they were handed over to the German consulate and passed on (incompletely) to Commander Maxwell, HMS  Emerald . Combined with reports on the almost simultaneous murder of the English Lord Lyttleton on the north coast of New Britain, this news formed the basis for Australian newspaper reports about the violent end of Theodor Kleinschmidt. On July 30th, the Australasian claimed that the naturalist had not been killed at all, but that there was currently only one "murder victim" in the New Britain archipelago, who was the Englishman Lyttleton. This would have got into land disputes and then fell victim to the "atrocities of the natives". The Sydney Morning Herald , Maitland Mercury and South Australian Advertiser reported that Kleinschmidt had been "murdered", but because the "natives" had mistaken him for Lyttleton.

The claim was taken over from the New German Biography (1979) and Lyttleton also characterized as a "hated Englishman". The Encyclopedia of Biographies (2000) also referred to the false report as did the Süddeutsche Zeitung in July 2008 in a review in which Patrick Eichenberger said he was certain that Kleinschmidt's death was due to the “mistake”. For Jakob Anderhandt, the portrayal of Kleinschmidt's death in the media is an exemplary example of how messages from the Pacific Islands, which found their way into the major Australian daily newspapers in the 19th century, had a lasting impact on the Western world's attitudes towards the peoples of Oceania.

The Melanesian perspective

On a trip to the Duke of York group (1987), the ethnologist Heinz Schütte researched the oral traditions of Theodor Kleinschmidt's death. According to Schütte, a “version of the same event” can be recognized in them, but it is not compatible with the interests and objectives of European historiography. The oral tradition of the archipelago is rather about locally passed on and exclusively regionally valid stories in which, in connection with Kleinschmidt's fate, the dream of a “liberation from [colonial] oppression” is kept alive.

The stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong em Toboalilu ("story of a man named Toboalilu") reaches the furthest. In it, Kleinschmidt and two whites pillage in the absence of the powerful big man Toboalilu his ceremonial site and burn his fortune in shell money ( diwarra ). This is noticed from afar by the leader. He swims to Utuan, thwarted the escape of Kalimeta (Kleinschmidt) and his companions, leaks their boat with a gigantic stone "three feet by three feet" and then watches as Kleinschmidt and his companions are killed by others present.

Site of the Mioko massacre, contemporary illustration in the Sydney Mail (1881)

According to the version presented by Pastor Margret, which was recorded by Schütte, the incident was reported by "certain people" to the German colonial administration in Kokopo - but this did not yet exist in historical reality. In the story of Toboalilu Schütte therefore sees the indigenous reappraisal of the “ Mioko massacre ”, which was carried out in May 1881 under the leadership of Thomas Farrell by means of an alliance of white settlers from the Duke of York Islands. The massacre was intended to repay the alleged murder of Kleinschmidt and the two assistants. The second goal was to break up an alleged ring of local conspirators that Farrell said had formed after Kleinschmidt's death.

On May 14, 1881, Farrell and his troops drove the Utuan people who had fled to Ulu by means of a fusillade to the northern tip of the island, from where the persecuted could only escape by swimming or in canoes. The steamer Genil , lying in the roadstead, opened gunfire and, on Farrell's orders, sent at least fifty islanders to their deaths. The alleged "murderers" were able to escape to Kerawara, where they hid in the tops of tall coconut trees.

According to Pastor Margret's tradition, Toboalilu is found in such a palm tree on Kerawara. While in the historical reality the last of the alleged "murderers" Kleinschmidt and the alleged ringleaders were shot down from their hiding places by a raiding party of Farrell, Toboalilu is discovered in the top of the palm by his friends. He voluntarily gave up his hiding place after his friends told him that many of his own people had already been killed by the "German police". Toboalilu then surrenders to an executioner of the colonial administration, but the bullets ricochet off him during the execution because he is protected by an Iniet spell. Only when his friends summon him again and reveal to him that he must be ready to die or that the "police" will butcher all his relatives and the rest of the population of Utuan does Toboalilu's anger with the dead Kleinschmidt fade - and with her the magic. The next shots penetrate Toboalilu's body and he dies, but as the martyr of the Duke of York Islands he remains alive in their stories.

Scientific achievements / historical appreciation

The
Kleinschmidt's Parrot Madine named after Theodor Kleinschmidt

The Neue Deutsche Biographie praised Theodor Kleinschmidt as one of those “pioneers in natural research [.] Who, through their efforts, would have sustainably promoted the floristic and faunistic inventory of the earth during the 19th century”. The Godeffroy Museum received extensive collected material and self-illustrated reports from Kleinschmidt. For the anthropologist Herbert Tischner , Kleinschmidt is a natural scientist "of old style, who happily combines thorough scientific knowledge, an understanding of systematic collecting and artistic talents". Since Kleinschmidt's estate from the time in the Bismarck Archipelago was lost, Viti Levu must be described as the researcher's field of activity. Here, however, there are “not many” whose records and collections can be placed alongside the Theodor Kleinschmidts in view of their thoroughness and their “always valid value for ethnology”. Kleinschmidt's collection of Fiji was also significant from a historical and ethnographic point of view, because it came from a time before the "total dissolution" of the old Vitis culture took hold.

Theodor Kleinschmidt made the only pictorial representation of a complete statue of a Viti woman (“intimate tattooing”) today. Kleinschmidt's Parrot Madine ( Erythrura kleinschmidti ), also Black Mask Parrot Madine or Black-fronted Parrot Madine, was named after Theodor Kleinschmidt.

Kleinschmidt's role in the run-up to the Mioko massacre (1881) is also of interest for more recent research. Detailed studies of Kleinschmidt's years in the United States (1859 (?) - approx. 1871), an overall description of his work in Fiji (approx. 1873–1878) and results about his stay in Australia (1879) are still pending.

estate

After the Godeffroy Museum was closed , the objects that Kleinschmidt had collected went to the Museum of Ethnology in Hamburg, the Zoological Museum in Hamburg, the Museum of Ethnology in Leipzig and the anatomical collections of the University of Halle and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In addition to the ethnographic observations and botanical collections, some of Kleinschmidt's zoological discoveries, including a flycatcher ( Lamprochlia victoriae ) found in Fiji , are described in the journal of the Godeffroy Museum .

Some of Kleinschmidt's handwritten notes from the years in Fiji (reporting period 1875–78) were presumably brought to Hamburg by Captain Carl Pöhl, who was in charge of selling the collections, where the documents were sent to the local Museum of Ethnology.

literature

swell

  • Theodor Kleinschmidt: Travel to the Viti Islands, processed according to his correspondence. In: Journal of the Museum Godeffroy . Volume 5, pp. 249-283.
  • Theodor Kleinschmidt's ethnographic notes from the years 1877/78 about the mountain inhabitants of Viti Levu. Compiled and edited by Herbert Tischner. In: Baessler archive. New series, Vol. 13, Berlin 1965, pp. 359-401.
  • “Whites were too salty for the saucepan.” The travel notes of Johann Theodor Kleinschmidt (1834–1881) from Hessen. From Adelheid Rehbaum. In: Hessian homeland: from nature and history. H. 22. Mittelhessische Druck- und Verlagsgesellschaft, Gießen 2004, pp. 85-88.

Secondary works

German

  • Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim , the South Seas and a lot of money: biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012, Volume 1. Here the chapters “Unfortunate Scholars” (pp. 487–509) and “Various Visits” (pp. 511–532).
  • The researchers of the Museum Godeffroy - biographies, VIII. Johann Theodor Kleinschmidt (John Theodore Klinesmith) In: Treatises of the natural science association in Hamburg. Birgit Scheps: The sold museum. The South Sea companies of the trading house Joh. Ces. Godeffroy & Sohn, Hamburg, and the “Museum Godeffroy” collections . Goecke & Evers, Keltern / Weiler 2005, ISBN 3-937783-11-3 , pp. 142–155, table of contents (PDF) PDF.
  • Adolf Kleinschmidt:  Kleinschmidt, Theodor. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 12, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-428-00193-1 , p. 5 ( digitized version ).
  • Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, pp. 665–681.
  • Obituary . In: Richard Kiepert (Hrsg.): Globus, Illustrierte Zeitschrift für Länder- und Völkerkunde , Volume 41. Friedrich Bieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig, 1882, p. 175, university library . d. Humboldt University of Berlin

Foreign language

  • Marc Rochette: On the Meaning of Burekalou, aka 'Model Spirit House' from Fiji . In: Anthropology and Aesthetics , number 44 (Fall 2003), pp. 70-98.
  • Aubrey L. Parke: The Waimaro Carved Human Figures: Various Aspects of Symbolism of Unity and Identification of Fijian Polities . In: The Journal of Pacific History , Volume 32, Number 2 (December 1997), pp. 209-216.
  • Heinz Schütte: "Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. In: Pacific Studies. Volume 14, Number 3 (1991), pp. 69-96.
  • Fergus Clunie. Theodore Kleinschmidt . In: Domodomo: The Scholarly Journal of the Fiji Museum , Volume 2, Number 4 (1984).
  • TT Barrow: "Human Figures in Wood and Ivory from Western Polynesia". In: Man , Volume 56 (December 1956), pp. 165-168.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, pp. 665–667.
  2. tab 1 (PDF, 28 kB) and Tab 2 (PDF, 33 kB) at Missouri Digital Heritage: Soldiers' Records: War of 1812 World War I . See also: Journal of the Senate of the State of Missouri ... and Annual Report of the Adjutant General of Missouri .
  3. ^ Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, p. 667
  4. ^ A b c d Adolf Kleinschmidt:  Kleinschmidt, Theodor. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 12, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-428-00193-1 , p. 5 ( digitized version )., P. 5.
  5. Renewed Exploration of the Viti Islands , in: Journal des Museum Godeffroy , Volume 5, Issue 12, 1876, pp. 162–174 Digitized and Theodor Kleinschmidt's travels on the Viti Islands, edited according to the letters communicated. In: Journal des Museum Godeffroy , Volume 5, Issue 14, 1879, pp. 249–283, panels 11 to 16, digitized .
  6. Samoa Times , January 25, 1879.
  7. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 299.
  8. ^ Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, p. 669.
  9. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 488.
  10. a b Report by Mrs. Kleinschmidts, Fiji Times , August 27, 1881.
  11. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 531 f.
  12. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 303.
  13. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 490.
  14. Kleinschmidt an Danks, January 5, 1880, in: Benjamin Danks: Diary written in New Britain, 1878–1882 , in: Methodist Church Papers No. 616, Mitchell Library, Sydney.
  15. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 532.
  16. Heinz Heinz Schütte: "Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Pacific Studies. Vol. 14, No. 3 (1991), pp. 69-96, here: p. 74. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ojs.lib.byu.edu
  17. ^ Schulle an Hernsheim, in Eduard Hernsheim: Diaries (1880–1886, original, unpublished., Hamburg State Archives, Hernsheim Family Archives), July 30, 1880.
  18. ^ Hoyer an Hernsheim, in Eduard Hernsheim: Diaries (1880–1886, original, unpublished, Hamburg State Archives, Hernsheim Family Archives), May 21, 1880.
  19. Brown to Chapman, August 23, 1880, in: George Brown: “Letter Book 1876–1880,” Mitchell Library, Sydney.
  20. This is the title of Brown's autobiography, published by Hodder & Stoughton, London in 1908.
  21. ^ Michael O'Hanlon, Robert Louis Welsch (eds.): Hunting the gatherers: ethnographic collectors, agents and agencies in Melanesia, 1870s – 1930s. Berghahn Books, 2001, pp. 45-46, ISBN 1-57181-506-6 . (Limited preview with Google Book Search ).
  22. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 479.
  23. George Brown: Pioneer-Missionary and Explorer: a narrative of forty-eight years' residence and travel in Samoa, New Britain, New Ireland, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands . Hodder & Stoughton, London 1908, p. 358.
  24. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 493.
  25. Statement in the investigation report of Consul General Zembsch, Zembsch to Foreign Ministry, August 6, 1881, files of the colonial department of the Foreign Office, A III, 2786, Federal Archives Berlin-Lichterfelde.
  26. Testimony of a local informant to the Rev. Benjamin Danks, reproduced by Danks in: Danks to Chapman, April 14, 1881, Methodist Church of Australia, Overseas Mission, Letter Book April 1881-August 1884, unpublished, Mitchell Library, Sydney.
  27. According to evidence from the British Deputy High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, Hugh Hastings Romilly, contained in: Romilly an Western Pacific High Commission, August 6, 1881 (No. 158-81), in: Record of the Office of the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific, Correspondence, Vol. 1: Inwards Correspondence, June 1875 – ca December 1875, January 1877 – December 1891, unpublished, University of Auckland Library, New Zealand. For the entire course of events see also: Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, pp. 530 and 493.
  28. ^ Zembsch to the Foreign Office, August 6, 1881, files of the Colonial Department of the Foreign Office, A III, 2786, Federal Archives Berlin-Lichterfelde.
  29. Sydney Morning Herald , July 29, 1881; Maitland Mercury , July 30, 1881; South Australian Advertiser , July 28, 1881.
  30. Walther Killy (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Biographies . Saur Verlag, Munich 2000.
  31. Süddeutsche Zeitung , 14./15. June 2008, p. VI.
  32. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 496.
  33. Heinz Schütte: "Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Pacific Studies. Vol. 14, No. 3 (1991), pp. 69-96, here: pp. 69 f. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ojs.lib.byu.edu
  34. Heinz Schütte: "Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Pacific Studies. Vol. 14, No. 3 (1991), pp. 69-96, here p. 87. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ojs.lib.byu.edu
  35. The term can already be found in A. Baudouin: L'Aventure de Port Breton et la Colonie Libre dite Nouvelle-France , Paris, undated [1883], p. 275. H. Schütte translates it into English as “Meoko massacre "(Heinz Schütte: " Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu ". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. In: Pacific Studies. Vol. 14, No. 3 (1991), pp. 69–96, here p. 86) and J. Anderhandt ins Germans with “Mioko massacre” (Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, p. 475). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ojs.lib.byu.edu
  36. Cf. Jakob Anderhandt: Eduard Hernsheim, the South Seas and a lot of money : biography in two volumes. MV-Wissenschaft, Münster 2012. Volume 1, pp. 497 and 505.
  37. ^ Death number: Sydney Morning Herald , July 29, 1881. Lt. A. Baudouin: L'Aventure de Port Breton et la Colonie Libre dite Nouvelle-France , Paris, undated [1883], p. 275, more than 120 islanders were killed in the massacre.
  38. Richard Parkinson, quoted in: Heinz Schütte: "Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Pacific Studies. Vol. 14, No. 3 (1991), pp. 69-96, here: pp. 85 f. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ojs.lib.byu.edu
  39. Heinz Schütte: "Stori Bilong Wanpela Man Nem Bilong Em Toboalilu". The Death of Godeffroy's Kleinschmidt, and the Perception of History. ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. In: Pacific Studies. Vol. 14, No. 3 (1991), pp. 69-96, here: p. 92. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ojs.lib.byu.edu
  40. ^ Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, pp. 668 and 670.
  41. ^ Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, p. 681.
  42. ^ A b Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, p. 670.
  43. ^ Johannes Dietrich Eduard Schmeltz : Museum of Ethnology, Hamburg . In: International Archive for Ethnography , Vol. 1, 1888, p. 199. online
  44. ^ Herbert Tischner: "Contributions to the ethnography of the old Viti Levu and Vanua Levu based on unpublished notes and drawings by Theodor Kleinschmidt from the years 1875–1878". In: Contributions to people research: Hans Damm on the 65th birthday . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1961, p. 668. According to Tischner, Pöhl was one of the liquidators of JC Godeffroy & Sohn, but is with Kurt Schmack: JC Godeffroy & Sohn, merchants in Hamburg, performance and fate of a world trading house . Broschek, Hamburg 1938, p. 278, not mentioned in a list of administrators who were entrusted with winding up the company.