Indian calendar
On the Indian subcontinent , the era is characterized by a multitude of eras and cycles. In the area, which in addition to today's India and Nepal also includes Pakistan , Bangladesh and parts of Afghanistan , there were only a few large empires whose rule extended over large areas of the subcontinent. Rather, regional princes and dynasties each ruled small areas. The number of short-lived eras is correspondingly diverse . The epoch of some eras is also uncertain. Only a few eras had supra-regional significance and are still used today.
Eras
The eras have preferably resulted from the counting of the years of reign of a ruler or a dynasty or the counting of a certain event. But they mostly only became an afterthought to an era that was used over a long period of time. The dates sometimes appear without the name of an era, so that some eras were only named by research. When counting, a distinction must be made between completed calendar years and current calendar years, as we use them for example when specifying age (2 years and 3 months) or in the Gregorian calendar (August 2004). However, both types can occur in the same era.
The Saptarshi Kala Era
The era is named after the seven wise men ( Rishi ) who are identified with the seven stars of the Great Bear. According to ancient Indian tradition, which goes back to the 6th century AD, the stars of the Great Bear linger in a lunar station for 100 years; so they pass through all 27 lunar stations in 2700 years. The era has been used in Kashmir since about 813 AD and spreads to India between 925 AD and 1025 AD. The year 3076 or 3077 BC is the epoch. To assume. The year 76 and 5076 of the Saptarshi-Kala era began in 2000 AD. In this counting, the centuries are often left out and only the tens and ones are given, so that the counting starts again at 1 after a hundred years. The era is also called Loka-Kala, more recently also Pahari samvat and Kachcha samvat.
The Kali Yuga era
The era is named after the fourth, the iron age ( Kali-Yuga ) of the Hindu four world ages.
The era is known in South India from AD 634, AD 770 and from the 10th century and then since the 12th century. In northern India this era does not occur until 1170 AD.
The epoch is midnight on February 17th, 3102 BC. Chr. Or sunrise on February 18, 3102 v. At this point in time, a conjunction of the sun, the moon and all planets should have taken place. Also the god Krishna , the eighth incarnation of the god Vishnu , is said to have returned to heaven.
In the year 2000 AD, the year 5102 of the Kali Yuga era began.
This era is mainly used in astronomical works and rarely appears in inscriptions.
The Buddhist Era
The era is named after the founder of the religion Siddharta Gautama, known as Buddha , the enlightened one.
The era first occurs in the 3rd century BC. For a short time in Ceylonese chronicles, the year 483 BC being the year of Buddha's death. Applies. It was not until the 12th century that a generally used Buddhist era emerged, which spread from Ceylon to Burma (now Myanmar ) and Thailand . In India it is used in Bodhgaya , in the state of Bihar, the place of the Buddha's enlightenment.
The epoch is the year 544 BC. BC, which is considered the year of Buddha's death.
In the year 2000 AD the year 2454 of the Buddhist era began.
The era is also known as the nirvana era.
The Mahavira Nirvana Era
The era is named after Mahavira's extinction in nirvana . Mahavira is the founder of Jainism .
The era appears early in the Jain scriptures, but it does not appear as an official era until the 19th century.
The era is used by the Jains in India.
The epoch is the year 528 BC. BC, which is considered to be the year of Mahavira's death.
In 2000 AD, the Mahavira Nirvana era began in 2527.
The Maues era
The era is named after the Indo-Scythian king Maues .
The era occurs shortly after the turning point in the north of the subcontinent.
The exact epoch is not known; it could be between 78 BC. BC and 68 BC Chr. Lie.
The Azes era
The era is named after the Indo-Scythian king Azes who lived in the 1st century BC. Ruled in Punjab and the Indus Valley.
The era was probably founded by the Apracas , who simply continued to count the reign of the Azes.
The era appears on coins between 6 AD and 327 AD.
The epoch is the year 58 BC. Chr.
The era is very likely to be identical to the vicrama era .
The Vicrama Era
The era is named after the legendary Chalukya king Vikrama or Vikramaditya from Ujjain in Malwa in what is today Madhya Pradesh , but this name only occurs in 992 AD. The era was probably founded by the Kushan king Kanishka I, who is said to have conquered northern India. However, it has only been known as the vicrama era since the 12th century. The era spread early from Gujarat across northern India. In southern India, however, it has only appeared since 1218 AD. The epoch is the year 58 BC. In the year 2000 AD the year 2057 of the vicrama era began. In the period between 450 AD and 850 AD, the era was known as the Malava era. Today it is used as Vikram Sambat or Vikrama-samvat . This era was never used for astronomical purposes.
The Tiruvalluvar era
The era is named after the famous Tamil poet Tiruvalluvar ; his tirukkural is one of the most important works in the Tamil language.
The era was instituted by the Tamil Nadu government between 1971 and 1981.
This era is used by the Tamil Nadu government.
The epoch is the year 31 BC. BC, which was assumed to be Tiruvalluvar's year of birth, although his dates of life are very uncertain. In 2000, the year 2031 of the Tiruvalluvar era began.
The Christian Era
See also: v. BC , Anno Domini , Anno Salutis
The era is named after Jesus Christ .
The era came to India with the European colonial rulers in the 17th century.
The epoch is the year 1 AD.
The Saka era
The era has been in use since AD 400, but it wasn't until AD 505 that it was referred to as the Saka era in calendar maker guides.
The era originated in the south-western region of northern India and over time spread across India and has persisted to the present day.
The epoch is April 1, 78 AD, the day of the spring equinox . According to Indian astronomers, who closely observed the course of Jupiter, the moon and Jupiter are said to have been very close to the sun at this point in time.
In AD 2000, the Saka era began in 1923.
The Kaniska era
The era was the Kushan king Kanishka I. introduced.
It was used in Gandhara and Mathura .
The epoch is the year 227 AD.
Probably after the first hundred years the counting started again with 1.
The Valabhi era
The era was named after the Maitrakas capital, Valabhi, and was introduced to the West Indies by the Maitrakas.
The era was used in Kathiavad and the surrounding area between AD 400 and AD 1263.
The epoch is the autumn of the year 318 AD.
The era is likely a variant of the Gupta era .
The Gupta era
The era was named after the Gupta dynasty , which probably came from the central and eastern Gangestal valley and built a great empire.
The era was introduced by Candragupta II or one of his successors
The era spread with the expansion of the Gupta Empire to all of northern and central India and Nepal and is documented for the period from 482 AD to 705 AD.
The epoch is the spring of 320 AD. Perhaps that was the time of Candragupta I's accession to the throne or his marriage to Princess Kumaradevi.
The Cedi or Kalachuri era
The era is named after the Kalachuri dynasty of Maharashtra .
It was used in West and Central India.
It has been documented from AD 457 to the first half of the 8th century AD. It appears in inscriptions from the 10th to the 13th centuries as the Cedi era.
The epoch falls in the year 248 or 249 AD.
The Ganga era
The era is named after the Ganga kings of Kalinganagara, Madras.
The era was used in the West Indies.
The era is documented over a period of 254 years.
The epoch could be in AD 590 or 7th century.
The Fasli Era, the Bengali San Era, the Vilajati Era
The Fasli era, after being used for agricultural calendars, is the Bengali San era. named after the Bengal region and the Vilajati era after the term "province".
The eras were introduced by the Mughal emperor Akbar I as the Fasli era. in the upper Ganges plain , as the Bengali-San era in Bengal and as the Vilajati era in the Dechan .
Based on his accession to the throne in 1554 or 1555 AD or 963 after the Hejra, all calendars of his empire should use the same year as the Mohammedan calendar. Since the Mohammedan calendar counts pure lunar years with only 354 days, but the new eras counted solar years, instead of the hijra (622 AD), the year 593 AD must be used as the arithmetical epoch .
In 2000 the year 1407 of these eras began.
This census is called the Amli era in Orissa .
The Mahratta Sur-San Era
The era was used in what is now the state of Maharashtra and still occurs occasionally today.
It was originally a count according to the Islamic lunar calendar, but has been counting according to solar years since 1344 AD, so that the year 599 AD must be set as the epoch.
The era was also known as Arabi San.
The Harsha Kala era
The era is named after the north Indian king Harshavardhana .
It was introduced in AD 606 or 607.
The era was used in Mathura and Kanauj .
More than ten inscriptions from the 7th and 8th centuries have come down to us from Nepal. Although the dynasty ended in Harshavardhana, the era remained in use for about four hundred years.
The year 606 or 607 AD is assumed to be the epoch.
The Mohammedan era
The era is named after the founder of the religion, Mohammed .
The era is said to have been introduced under the caliph Umar in 639 AD.
The era has been used by almost all Muslims since then.
The epoch is July 15, 622 AD. It is the beginning of the year in which Mohammed moved from Mecca to Medina, the year of the Hijra . In 2000 AD the 1421 of the Muslim era began.
The Yazdegerd era
The era is after the last Sassanid king of Persia Yazdegerd III. named.
It originated when after the murder of the king the count of the reign of Yazdegerd III. was continued.
The epoch is accordingly the year 632 AD, the New Year's Day of his first year of reign. With the Persians fleeing Persia from persecution by the Arabs, the era came to India.
In 2000 AD the year 1370 of this era began.
The Burmese era
The era is named after the state of Burma (now Myanmar).
King Kandasorea is said to have introduced Buddhism to Arakan in AD 638 and established an era in honor of the Buddha.
The era dates from the Arakanen who conquered the area in the 7th century or in the 9th century.
The era was used in the Chittagong area.
The epoch is the year 638 AD.
In 2000 AD the year 1363 of this era began.
The era is also called the Magi-San era or Mug era.
The Shahur or Sur era
The era was needed in western Maharashtra .
The era was probably introduced around 1344 AD with the establishment of the Mohammedan kingdoms in the Decan.
Since the Mohammedan calendar is based on a pure lunar year, but this era counts solar years, instead of the Hejra (622 AD), the year 599 AD must be used as the arithmetical epoch.
In 2000 AD the year 1401 of this era began.
The era is also called Mahratta Sur-San or Arabi-San.
The Kollam era
The era is named after an area on the Malabar Coast.
It was introduced under Udaiyamar Tandavarman.
It was used on the Malabar coast from Mangalore to Cape Comorin and in the Tinnevelly area.
The epoch is the year 825 AD.
It is said to be a cyclical millennium census that began with the legendary Parasurama in 1176 BC. Began. However, the first known date is only from AD 973; and in fact, in 1825 AD the count continued with 1001. Possibly this count is a southern variant of the Saptarshi count.
In 2000 AD the year 1176 of this era began.
The Newar era
The Newar era is named after the Newar hill tribe of Nepal .
The era has been in Nepal since 878 AD when it replaced the Gupta and Harsha eras . It was officially used until 1768 AD when the Gurkhas came to Nepal, expelled from northern India by the Muslims, bringing with them the Saka era.
The epoch is the year 879 AD.
The era is also called the Nepal era
The Chalukya Vicrama Era
The Chalukya era was named after King Vikramaditya II of the western Chalukya . It was introduced by King Vikramaditya II to replace the Saka era.
The epoch is the year 1076 AD, the year of Vikramaditya II's accession to the throne.
The Simha era
The era is named after the king Siva Simhadeva.
The era was in use in Kathiavad and Gujarat.
The era is documented for the period from 1145 to 1264 AD.
The epoch is believed to be AD 1113.
The Lakshmana Sena Era
The era is named after the Bengali king Lakshmana.
The era was used in Bengal , Tirhut and Mithila . It was introduced during his reign or shortly after his death.
The epoch is controversial: The years 1105 or 1106 AD are possible, but the years 1118 or 1119 AD are more likely.
The Nanakshahi era
The era is named after Guru Nanak , the founder of Sikhism.
The new era was introduced in 1998 by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee (SGPC).
The era is used by the Sikh, but is very controversial.
The epoch is the year 1469 AD, the year of Guru Nanak's birth.
In 2000, the year 532 of this era began.
The Tarikh Ilahi era
The name means "divine era".
The era was introduced by the great mogul Akbar I on March 21, 1584 retroactively to the first New Year celebration after his accession to the throne in February 1556.
It was in use until the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century.
The Rajyabhisheka Saka era
The era was instituted by Shivaji , the founder of the Kingdom of Mahratta .
The epoch of this count is the year 1674 AD, the year of his accession to the throne.
The era was also called the Mahratta Raja Saka era or Raj-abhishek era.
Cycles
The 12 year Jupiter cycle
The cycle is based on the observation of the planet Jupiter . There are two methods of determining a Jupiter year (samvatsara).
According to the first method, a Jupiter year began when the planet first became visible again in the morning sky after a period of invisibility. Accordingly, such a Jupiter year had between 392 and 405 days.
This cycle was in use in northern India at the time of the Gupta dynasty and is documented for the period 457 to 528.
According to the second method, a Jupiter year begins when the planet enters a new zodiac sign (rasi). In the Indian works, values between 361.026721 and 361.020007 days are given for the length of such a Jupiter year.
This cycle was used in astronomical works and has been in use since Aryabhata (* 476; † around 550).
In both methods, the Jupiter years are not counted, but are named after moon houses ( nakshatra ) like the months of the lunar years :
| 1 | Karttika |
| 2 | Mârgraśîrsha |
| 3 | Pausha |
| 4th | Mâgha |
| 5 | Phâlguna |
| 6th | Chaitra |
| 7th | Vaiśâkha |
| 8th | Jyeshtha |
| 9 | Shshādha |
| 10 | Śrâvana |
| 11 | Bhâdrapada |
| 12 | Âśvina |
The 60 year Jupiter cycle
The cycle probably originated from the combination of five 12-year Jupiter cycles. The Jupiter year begins when the planet Jupiter enters a new zodiac sign (rasi). In the Indian works, values between 361.026721 and 361.020007 days are given for the length of such a Jupiter year.
This cycle is used differently in North India and South India.
In the North Indian method, the solar or lunar year is named after the Jupiter year in which the beginning of the calendar year falls. As a result, a Jupiter year disappears about every 85 years if two Jupiter years begin in the same calendar year.
In the South Indian method, the cycle runs through completely regardless of the position of Jupiter without omitting. The 60 year Jupiter cycle is still in use today. The individual years of Jupiter are not counted, but have their own names:
| No. | Surname | No. | Surname | No. | Surname |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | prabhava | 21st | sarrajit | 41 | plavanga |
| 2 | vibhava | 22nd | sarvadhârin | 42 | kîlaka |
| 3 | śukla | 23 | virôdhin | 43 | saumya |
| 4th | pramôda | 24 | vikŗita | 44 | sâdhâraņa |
| 5 | prajâpati | 25th | khara | 45 | virôdhakŗit |
| 6th | angirasa | 26th | nandana | 46 | paridhâvin |
| 7th | śrîmukha | 27 | vijaya | 47 | pramâdin |
| 8th | bhâva | 28 | jaya | 48 | ânanda |
| 9 | yuvan | 29 | manmatha | 49 | râkshasa |
| 10 | dhâtrŗi | 30th | durmukha | 50 | anala |
| 11 | îśvara | 31 | hémalambi | 51 | pingala |
| 12 | bahudhânya | 32 | vilamba | 52 | kâlayukta |
| 13 | pramâthin | 33 | vicarin | 53 | siddhârthin |
| 14th | vikrama | 34 | śarvarin | 54 | raudri |
| 15th | vŗisha | 35 | plava | 55 | durmati |
| 16 | chitrabhânu | 36 | śubhakŗit | 56 | dundubhi |
| 17th | subhânu | 37 | śôbhana | 57 | rudhirôdgârin |
| 18th | târana | 38 | krôdhin | 58 | raktâksha |
| 19th | pârthiva | 39 | viśvâvasu | 59 | krôdhana |
| 20th | vyaya | 40 | parâbhava | 60 | kshaya |
The current cycle began in North India in 1975 AD, in South India in 1987 AD. In 2000 AD the year "nandana" began according to the North Indian method, and the year "vikrama" according to the South Indian method. .
The Graha parivritti cycle
The cycle is 90 solar years.
The current cycle began in 1957 AD.
In the year 2000 AD began the year 43 of the Graha-parivritti-Zuklus'.
The cycle is used in South India mainly in Madura in Tamil Nadu .
The Onko cycle
The cycle was a cycle of years of government.
The years were counted from 1 to 59, with the exception of 10 all numbers that end in 0 or 6 were rolled over, so that the cycle is actually 49 years. After 59, “2. [Row], 1st year ”, started again at 1. The count began with the first year of the prince's reign.
This census was used in the Ganjam district of Orissa .
The cycle is also known as the Anka cycle .
See also
Individual evidence
- ↑ Day and Tamil Calendar based on Thiruvalluvar Day ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (read February 21, 2012)
- ↑ Heike Franke: Akbar and Ǧahāngīr. Studies on political and religious legitimation in text and images. ( Bonner Islamstudien, Volume 12) EB-Verlag, Schenefeld 2005, p. 224.
- ^ Friedrich Karl Ginzel: Handbook of the mathematical and technical chronology. Vol. 1: Calendar of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Mohammedans, Persians, Indians, Southeast Asians, Chinese, Japanese and Central Americans , Leipzig 1906, p. 375
- ^ Friedrich Karl Ginzel: Handbook of the mathematical and technical chronology. Vol. 1: Calendar of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Mohammedans, Persians, Indians, Southeast Asians, Chinese, Japanese and Central Americans , Leipzig 1906., p. 370
literature
- Harry Falk: Early calendar in India. In: Harry Falk (Ed.): From the ruler to the dynasty. On the essence of continuous time reckoning in antiquity and the present. Hempen, Bremen 2002, ISBN 3-934106-20-X .
- Friedrich Karl Ginzel: Handbook of mathematical and technical chronology. Vol. 1. Calendar of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Mohammedans, Persians, Indians, Southeast Asians, Chinese, Japanese and Central Americans. Leipzig 1906.
- John Faithfull Fleet: Hindu Chronology. In: The Encyclopaedia Britannica, A dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information. 11th edition. Volume XIII. Cambridge 1910.
- Annette Schmiedchen, Fred Virkus: Early calendar in India. In: Harry Falk (Ed.): From the ruler to the dynasty. On the essence of continuous time reckoning in antiquity and the present. Hempen, Bremen 2002, ISBN 3-934106-20-X .
- Robert Sewell, Sankara Balkrishna Dikshit: The Indian Calendar: With tables for the conversion of Hindu and Muhammadan into AD dates, and vice versa (with tables of eclipses visible in India by Robert Schram). London 1896.
- Tiruvalluvar Era in en: Puthandu (English)