Verbal periphrase in the Spanish language

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Verbal periphrase , perífrasis verbal , or verbal paraphrase is a general term from linguistics and describes the combination of two or, in exceptional cases , more verbs that form a single and semantically (meaning) uniform (non-composite) predication unit (statement) . So there are verbal complexes that are analytically formed from several words.

Of all the Romance languages , Spanish is considered the language with the most verb phrases. The verbs generating a verbal description are subject to a "grammaticalization process", so to speak. This means that they are part of a process in which certain lexical units of a verb lose their original meaning in order to be able to fulfill grammatical functions afterwards. The lexical-semantic construction for the formation of the Spanish verbal periphrase takes place via at least one finite verb, the auxiliary verb, auxiliar , and a nominal form, auxiliado . The noun form of a verb is understood to mean its substantiated infinite verb form . The use of verbal periphrases or verbal paraphrases, perífrasis verbales , is common in Spanish.

At least one verb becomes an auxiliary verb ( auxiliary ) and only has the function of indicating certain grammatical categories such as tense or aspect in the periphrase . The term was developed in particular by Georges Gougenheim for the French periphrases. The verbalization of tense, aspect and mode by means of circumscribing verb constructions is a characteristic of Romance languages. In the Spanish language, the tense, tiempo gramatical , is used as a grammatical means to form the time reference . A distinction is made between syntactically simple (only full verbs, finite verbs) and syntactically complex or periphrastic tense forms (with an auxiliary verb construction, finite verb in connection with a periphrase or an infinite verb). The auxiliary, verbo auxiliar , and verb take a morphologically defined form.

In his fundamental work from 1973, Wolf Dietrich describes five types of categories of (Romance) verbal phrases:

  • the diathetic (such as passivation, causative ),
  • the temporal (such as futurity),
  • the aspect (such a look, beginning, reiteration or repetition, sequence or course, termination of an action),
  • the situating and
  • the modal form (such as obligation, possibility, necessity).

The Spanish are the action type of action, such as an event or action runs, with verbal descriptions by the perífrasis verbal again. This is understood to be verbal groups that are constituted as verbal periphrases from a combination of a finite verb and one (or more) infinitive verb forms of Spanish , whereby the finite verb has largely lost its own meaning, but to modify or characterize the verbal occurrence, especially with regard to the type of action further has the effect that the verb refers in the infinitive. These are constructions with verbs of movement that are connected to the infinitive, gerund or participle and lose their original meaning. They take on the functions of a pseudo auxiliary verb. The periphrastic constructions denote: beginning, repetition, duration, end of the action.

process German prefixed forms Spanish equivalents
Beginning of the process Prefixes: one ; ent- ; on , z. B. enter ; fell asleep ; to flourish I. Regarding prefixes: no equivalents; II. Inchoative verbal phrases: empezar a + infinitivo ; comenzar a + infinitivo ; III. se verb forms , e.g. B. dormirse
End, completion of the process Prefixes: ab- ; on- ; off- ; zer- , z. B. burn down ; burst open ; tear I. Prefixes: des- , en- ; II. Resultative verbal phrases : terminar + infinitivo ; terminar + gerundio ; III. Adverbs like: por completo ; totalmente
Transition to a new target state Prefixes: ab- ; he ; off- ; ver , z. B. cool down ; astonish ; pour out ; buried I. Prefixes: en- ; em- ; a- , z. B. enflaquecer ; engordar ; asustarse ; III. Prefixes: des- ; de- ; re , z. B. destacar ; desteñir ; rejuvenecer ; IV. Se verb forms: despertarse ; V. inchoative aspect-ingressive Kopulaersatz : ponerse

The finite verb, the auxiliary verb or auxiliar, in its connection with the infinite, non-conjugated main verb, formas no personales del verbo , mostly loses its basic lexical meaning. - example:

  • Voy a escribir. literally I'm going to write in the sense of I'm about to write or I will write (soon) .

On the other hand, the second verb, the main verb, emphasizes its lexical meaning and thus describes the verbal act in and of itself. Through its respective grammatical form as an infinite verb, something is additionally stated about the course of the action or the factual situation.

While with fixed idioms the meaning lies solely in the entire word construction, there is no auxiliary and infinite verb as such, it is not possible to break down the idiom without losing meaning. - example:

  • dar a conocer announce, announce, proclaim
  • hacer llegar come across, send .

Verbal periphrases or verbal paraphrases form a semantic and syntactic unit, which are accompanied by a common subject and the same objects. Real verbal periphrases can be replaced by simple verb forms, losing their aspectual expressiveness. Furthermore, the infinite verb forms cannot be exchanged with a pronoun, in such a case there are two independent verbs in a main and a subordinate clause . 

Juana va a hacer la canción del mundial. Verbstruktur ist nicht trennbar: echte verbale Umschreibung
 Juana la va a hacer.

Juana va a hacer la canción del mundial. Ersatz durch einfachere Verbformen möglich
Juana hará la canción del mundial.

Juana ha dejado hecha la canción del mundial. Verbale Umschreibung lässt keine Pronomenplatzierung zu
Juana la ha dejado hecha.



 Juana necesita hacer violín. Pronomen lässt sich einfügen
Juana lo necesita.

Infinite verb forms in Spanish

The finite verbs can be contrasted with the infinite verb forms , the latter are not sentence-constituting and do not represent a tense form in the actual sense. Because while the finite verb form the action, the happening or the facts that relate to the time of the utterance, i.e. H. are able to express themselves (temporally) deictically , the infinite verb forms can only do so indirectly via or in conjunction with another finite verb as a so-called periphrastic tense form.

Infinite verbs , formas no personales del verbo , reveal neither the grammatical person nor the number. In Spanish, these include the infinitive , infinitivo , participle , participio - actually only the participle, which is needed with haber to form the compound tenses and with ser and estar for the formation of the passive - and the gerund , gerundio .

  • Infinitive , modo infinitivo . Example: comprar
  • Participle , participio . Example: comprado
  • Gerund , gerundio . Example: comprando

These infinite verb forms are used to form the perífrasis verbales . These are formed by a combination of a finite and an infinite verb form, the finite verb takes on the function of an auxiliary verb, while the infinite verb can appear as an infinitive, participle and gerund. These are also known as hypotactic verb phrases , which are then differentiated from the paratactic verb phrases .

The Spanish verbal phrases

Historical requirements

The use of the Spanish verbal phrases must be viewed against the background of a change in the grammatical structure of vulgar or spoken Latin . It was the change from a synthetic to an analytical structure of language . This development tendency in Vulgar Latin ultimately determines the Romance languages and thus also Spanish. Since not only the Spanish language has verbal phrases, but they can be found in almost all Romance languages, but on the other hand they are absent in High Latin , the assumption has been made that the verbal phrases were a creation of Vulgar Latin or the vulgar Latin languages. The aspect , aspecto gramatical , is expressed in the Romance languages , especially in Spanish, through the verbal phrases. The Romance languages ​​can be significantly differentiated from written Latin through the periphrastic expression in the categories tense , aspect and mode .

Functions of verbal phrases in the Spanish language

The perífrasis verbales in Spanish can be used to characterize the aspect of the action - how an action takes place or what the speaker's attitude to the temporal structure of actions or events is. These constructions with verbs of movement relate to the infinite verbs (the infinitive, participle or gerund), which thereby lose their original meaning and assume the function of a modal verb .

They are basically constructed according to the following pattern (lexical and grammatical means):

The impersonal verb form, the infinite verb, or more precisely the nominal form, auxiliado , i.e. a substantivated infinite verb form, mostly an infinitive , infinitivo a participle , participio , or a gerund , gerundio . Every now and then there is a third part of speech, a connecting word usually a preposition or conjunction, between the auxiliary verb, the finite verb, auxiliar , and the main verb, auxiliado .

In Spanish , verbal phrases are also used to form the near future, futuro próximo ( ir + a + infinitive ) and the near past, pretérito próximo ( acabo de + infinitive ). The verb ir go is in the Periphrase with the preposition a according to and about an infinitive, escribir write to the formation voy a escribir I'm just going to write it . The verb acabar end, finish, for example, in the verbal phrase acabo de + infinitive becomes an auxiliary verb and indicates that an action has just been completed, lo acabo de empty I have just read it (literally: I stop reading it ).

In some normative Spanish grammars , in addition to the described, necessary prerequisite for its construction - conjugated verb plus impersonal verb - the prerequisite is made that the finite verb loses its basic meaning in the newly created construct. In other words: if the conjugated verb kept its basic meaning, one would speak of a semi-verbal periphrase. In verbal periphrases in a fixed idiom , a main verb cannot be distinguished from a secondary verb, the entire construction stands for the phrase. It is no longer possible to separate individual parts without distorting the meaning.

Through the formation of the verbal descriptions, the aspect is worked out, especially in the infinite verb of the semi-verbal phrases . The aspect describes the speaker's attitude to the temporal structure of actions or events. The grammatical aspect refers to the use of certain verb forms through which the different temporal perspectives can be represented in the speech situation. For the German native speaker, it is important, but also difficult, to differentiate between the imperfect and the perfective aspect, in other words the understanding and presentation of an action as a complete whole or as an action in progress.

Classifications

Classification of verbal phrases according to Roca-Pons

If the verbal phrases are classified according to their components, the following building blocks can be named: They consist of a finite verb, auxiliar , and a nominal form, auxiliado . The auxiliado can be an infinitive, participle or a gerund, infinitivo, participio, gerundio . The nominal forms of the verbs, also verbum infinitum or auxiliado, are in principle verb forms that are not determined by a person. According to Roca-Pons (1958) these can be broken down as follows:

  • perifrasis con infinitivo,
  • perifrasis con participio,
  • perifrasis con gerundio.

Roca-Pons then examines the individual verbal periphrases within these groupings, for example their temporal, aspect or modal value and carries out further differentiations. The verbal periphrases can in turn be divided into temporal, aspectual, modal and other verbal periphrases. Temporal periphrases can be divided according to time periods, present, past and guild. Aspectal verbal periphrases have the property that the auxiliar is separated from the auxiliado by a preposition . Modal verbal periphrases, on the other hand, are periphrases that are formed with modal verbs as auxiliary . In the case of the periphrastic constructions, the direct connections, i.e. those that are joined directly to one another without a preposition , can be divided from the indirect connections with prepositions. Finally, there are verbal periphrases with an infinitive that cannot be classified yet, they form the group of verbal supplements.

Classification from the perspective of the aspect

One can divide verbal phrases from the perspective of the aspect. Depending on which aspect of the plot they emphasize in:

  • perífrasis incoactivas o ingresivas , the beginning of the action is highlighted; Example: empezar a hacer ;
  • perífrasis durativas emphasize the duration and course of the action; Example: continuar haciendo ;
  • perífrasis reiterativas show that the action is repeated several times; Example: andar haciendo ;
  • perífrasis perfectivas y puntuales emphasize the end or termination of the act; Example: parar de hacer ;
  • perífrasis exagerativas express the exaggeration in an act; Example: hartarse a hacer ;
  • perífrasis acumulativas emphasize that something has accumulated through the action; Example: llevar hecho ;
  • perífrasis aproximativas emphasize the vagueness and uncertainty about the act depicted; Example: venir a hacer ;
  • perífrasis obligativas express the must and should of the action; Example: quedar por hacer ;
  • perífrasis resultativas emphasize the result of the action; Example: llegar a hacer .

In addition to the classification of verbal periphrases in terms of their type of formation, i.e. a distinction between verbal periphrases with an infinitive, participle or gerund, a further classification option leads to the differences between temporal, aspectual and modal verbal periphrases.

In the work of Hamplová (1968) an attempt is made to analyze verbal periphrases in terms of their type of action character. The following functions of verbal phrases are possible:

  • passive diathesis and factitive actions, i.e. periphrases that express the effect of states,
  • mode
  • temporal relationships, future or past
  • Promotion type

Division of the perífrasis verbales into modal and aspect verbal descriptions

The verbal paraphrases, perífrasis verbales, are combinations of two verbs that express a verbal action. It is essential to differentiate between modal and aspectual verbal descriptions, perífrases modales y aspectuales . Perífrases modales promise the speaker's attitude towards the action. They can only be formed with the infinitive and the modal auxiliary verbs such as deber, poder, querer, soler . In the perífrases aspectuales , statements about the manner are added to the infinitive forms that cannot be reproduced in the simple (infinite) verb form. For example, whether it is a regularly recurring, finished, immediately starting, developing action.

Overview table

The types of action described in the first column of the table , modo de acción, represent lexical - semantic categories of the verb or verbal phrases. They characterize the verbal process in its respective special way, the course of an action or the phases or gradation of the action, d. H. they give the verb additional meaning and thereby specify the action. These categories designate a type of action according to their polarity, e.g. B. a beginning, a repetition, a course, a duration and an end of the action or event.

Verbal Periphrase (Vp.) meaning Made with General examples Example sentence Verb endings
temporal subject
parallel subjects Present, presente auxiliar + gerundio estar + gerundio Estar durmiendo -iendo
retrospective subject Past, pretérito auxiliar + participio haber + participio He escrito los lemas esta mañana. -ado, -ido
prospective subject Future, futuro proximo auxiliar + infinitivo ir a + infinitivo Voy a hacer mis deberes. -ar, -er, ir
Aspectual subject
iterative subject also frequent, repetitive; refers to a repetitive, habitual process (repetition) auxiliar + infinitivo ( auxiliar + gerundio ) volver a hacer , ( andar haciendo ) -ar, -er, ir (-iendo)
imminent subject expresses imminent actions (preparation) auxiliar + infinitivo comenzar a + infintivo , empezar a + , echar a + , ponerse a + -ar, -er, ir
inceptive, ingressive subject immediately before the event (start) auxiliar + infinitivo estar para + infintivo , estar a punto de + -ar, -er, ir
inchoative Vp. highlight the beginning of an action auxiliar + infinitivo empezar a hacer , meterse a hacer -ar, -er, ir
continuous subject expresses an ongoing process, often in relation to a punctual event (course, duration) auxiliar + gerundio estar + gerundio , andar + , seguir + , continuar + , ir + , venir + -iendo
concluding subject denotes the end or result of a process that concludes the process (completion) auxiliar + infinitivo acabar de + infinitivo , acabar por + , dejar + , parar de + , llegar a + , terminar de + , terminar por + -ar, -er, ir
egressive subject denotes the end of a process (completion), indicate that the action has just been carried out auxiliar + infinitivo
resultative subject denotes the end or result of a process that concludes the process (completion) auxiliar + participio ( auxiliar + infinitivo ) llevar + participio , tener + , dar por + , quedar + (dejar de + infintivo) -ado, -ido (-ar, -er, ir)
terminative subject highlight the end or termination of an action auxiliar + infinitivo parar de hacer , terminar a hacer -ar, -er, ir
approximate subject emphasizes the assumption or uncertainty about the verbalized act
modal subject
deontic subject The way in which the world should be made according to certain laws auxiliar + infinitivo deber de hacer , venir a hacer -ar, -er, ir
alethic subject (logical) conclusions about the truth of relationships that exist between all possible worlds
bulethic subject whether something is desired in a possible world
epistemic subject Expectations speakers have based on their background knowledge tener que + infintivo
evident subject whether a speaker on evidence has second-hand or hearsay

Examples

Intention to act

These verbal phrases announce intentions to act that will happen soon or are imminent. General construction: 

Auxillarverb + Partikel + Vollverb im Infinitivo
Intentions; project Verbal periphrase Ejemplo Example translation
estar a punto de be ready to do something; get ready Estaba apunto de llamarte. I was about to call you.
estar para be about to do something Estoy para acostarme ya. I'm about to go to bed.
ir a to be about to do something; intend to do something Voy a colgar la biquini. I'm going to hang up the bikini in a moment
pasar a move on to something ¿Qué pasará con los datos personales que facilites? What happens to the personal data that I provide?

Beginning of action, beginning

Such verbal phrases mark the beginning, the opening of an action. General construction: 

Auxillarverb + Partikel + Vollverb im Infinitiv
Kick off; To begin Verbal periphrase Ejemplo Example translation
comenzar a begin to Quizás ahora, comenzar a negociar podremos. Maybe now we can start negotiating.
echar (se) a suddenly doing something (in combination with verbs of movement or mood) No se puede leer este libro sin echarse a llorar. You can't read this book without crying.
empezar a begin to Sólo tenías que empezar a hablar. All you have to do is start talking.
liarse a move on to something Me he liado a reparar la ventana delantera que estaba rota. I agreed to fix the broken front window.
meter (se) a try yourself at; plunge into something; start without expertise Me metí a course de yoga. I threw myself into a yoga class.
ponerse a begin to Es hora de ponerse a trabajar. It's time to go to work.
romper a suddenly and violently to start doing something Rompió a reír. She burst out laughing suddenly and violently.

Process, progress of action, course

Such verbal phrases mark the course and describe the process-like nature of an action. General construction: 

Auxillarverb + Partikel + Vollverb im Gerundio
Progression; Process, course Verbal periphrase Ejemplo Example translation
andar Progression with an indefinite time; in an indefinite locality Siempre andan discutiendo, creo que nunca se ponen de acuerdo. They always argue, I think they can never agree.
comenzar expresses the course of the first action La vaca que comienza comiendo se determina por un procedimiento cualquiera. The cow that starts to eat is determined by any method.
estar The action is taking place at the moment of the speaking act Te estoy escribiendo ahora porque algo ha sucedido. I am writing to you now because something has happened.
empezar start with something in the course of the plot La señora empezó diciendo. The woman started to say.
ir action that takes place regularly; Process in progress is ongoing Se va poniendo pesado. It's getting annoying.
llevar Action duration from earlier to now Llevo trabajando en esto desde hace ya mucho tiempo. I've been working on it for a long time.
quedarse Continuation of an action, a process
salir Sudden course of action One of the photos que salió haciendo la película fotográfica de ayer. One of the photos that were taken on the film yesterday.
venir Repeat an action over and over over a period of time; repetitive pattern Te lo vengo diciendo desde hace diez días. I've been telling you this for ten days.

literature

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ here more in the sense of action , i.e. with regard to the type of action . It is sometimes given synonymously with the aspect.
  2. ↑ Wikibooks Spanish / Idioms
  3. ↑ ingressive / inchoative
  4. ↑ iterative
  5. ↑ continuous
  6. ↑ durative / imperfective
  7. ↑ resultative

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Rena Torres Cacoullos : Grammaticization, synchronic variation, and language contact. John Benjamin, Amsterdam / Philadelphia 2000, ISBN 1-55619-938-4 , p. 8 f.
  2. ↑ Claudia Moriena, Karen Genschow: Great learning grammar Spanish: rules, examples of use, tests; [Level A1 - C1]. Hueber Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-19-104145-8 , p. 438.
  3. ^ Georges Gougenheim: Étude sur les périphrases verbales de la langue française. Nizet, Paris 1971
  4. ↑ Johannes Dölling: Temporal and modal meaning. Semantics and pragmatics. Institute of Linguistics, University of Leipzig
  5. ↑ Wolf Dietrich: The periphrastic verbal aspect in the Romance languages. Investigations into today's Romance verbal system and the problem of the origin of the periphrastic verbal aspect. Niemeyer, Tübingen 1973 (Supplement 140 to the ZRPh).
  6. ↑ Wolf Dietrich : The periphrastic verbal aspect in the Romance languages: Investigations into the current Romance verbal system and the problem of the origin of the periphrastic verbal aspect. Volume 140 supplements to the journal for Romance Philology, Max Niemeyer Verlag, imprint by de Gruyter, Berlin 1973, ISBN 3-484-52045-0 .
  7. ↑ Reinhard Kiesler: Introduction to the problem of vulgar Latin. Romance workbooks 48, Niemeyer, Tübingen 2006, ISBN 3-484-54048-6 , p. 60.
  8. ↑ Meike Poell, Bernhard Meliss: Current Perspectives of contrastive linguistics German - Spanish - Portuguese. Studies on the contrastive German-Ibero-Romance linguistics, BoD - Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2015, ISBN 3-8233-6954-7 , pp. 122–123
  9. ↑ Ulrike Schwall: Aspectuality. A semantic-functional category. Bd. 344 Tuebinger Contributions to Linguistics, Gunter Narr, Tuebingen 1991, ISBN 3-8233-4207-X , pp. 140 f.
  10. ↑ Claudia Moriena, Karen Genschow: Great learning grammar Spanish: rules, examples of use, tests; [Level A1 - C1]. Hueber Verlag, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-19-104145-8 , p. 438
  11. ↑ Elena Santillán: Spanish Morphosyntax. A study book for teaching, learning and practicing. Narr, Tübingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8233-6980-6 , pp. 55–58
  12. ↑ Arnim von Stechow, Dieter Wunderlich : Semantics / Semantics: An international handbook of contemporary research. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Vol. 6 Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1991, ISBN 3-11-020336-7 , p. 723. -
  13. ↑ Tomo y me voy. A problem of comparative European syntax. Pp. 13-55
  14. ↑ Harald Haarmann : World history of languages. From the early days of man to the present. CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60802-5 , pp. 211-240.
  15. ↑ Eugenio Coseriu : The Romance Verbal System. (= Tübingen Contributions to Linguistics. Volume 66). Narr Verlag, Tübingen 1976, ISBN 3-87808-066-2 , p. 119 f.
  16. ^ Günter Holtus (Ed.): Lexicon of Romance Linguistics. III. Latin and Romance - IV. Historical-comparative grammar of the Romance languages. Walter de Gruyter, 1996, ISBN 3-11-093836-7 , pp. 223-235.
  17. ↑ Perífrasis verbales - Introduction Spanish Fernández López: The Aspectual System of Spanish - perífrasis verbales - The aspect of action
  18. ^ Holger Siever : Translate Spanish into German. A work book. Narr study books , Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-8233-6391-0 , pp. 65-104.
  19. ↑ Perífrasis Verbales - Introduction. hispanoteca.eu
  20. ↑ The Spanish system of verbal periphrases - stadial phases. hispanoteca.eu
  21. ^ Maria Wishes: The Classification of Spanish Verbal Periphrases. Seminar: Special problems in translation SP> DE> SP. Carsten Sinner, SS 2010.
  22. ↑ The Aspectual System of Spanish - perífrasis verbales, hispanoteca.eu
  23. ^ Josep Roca i Pons: Estudios sobre perífrasis verbales del español. CSIC, Madrid 1958, p. 38 f
  24. ↑ Ulrike Schwall: Aspectuality. A semantic-functional category. Bd. 344 Tuebingen Contributions to Linguistics, Gunter Narr, Tuebingen 1991, ISBN 3-8233-4207-X , pp. 141-171
  25. ^ Maria Wishes: The Classification of Spanish Verbal Periphrases. Seminar Special Problems in Translation SP> DE> SP. University of Leipzig, SS 2010, Carsten Sinner.
  26. ↑ Wolf Dietrich: Verbal Periphrases. In: Günter Holtus, Michael Metzeltin, Christian Schmitt (Eds.): Lexicon of Romance Linguistics. Volume II, 1: Latin and Romansh. Historical-comparative grammar of the Romance languages. Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1997, pp. 223-235.
  27. ↑ Sylva Hamplovà: Acerca de la manera de acción y el problema de su expresión mediante las perífrasis verbales en español. Philologica Pragensia, 11, 1968, pp. 209-231.
  28. ↑ Elena Santillán: Spanish Morphosyntax. A study book for teaching, learning and practicing. Narr, Tübingen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8233-6980-6 , pp. 55–58
  29. ^ Claus D. Pusch, Andreas Wesch: Verbal periphrases between grammar, lexicon and pragmatics. To the articles in this volume. Excerpt from text, pp. 1–10
  30. ↑ The Aspectual System of Spanish-Perífrasis Verbales. Justo Fernández López, hispanoteca.eu
  31. ↑ Achim Binder: Aspectual Verbal Periphrases in Spanish. Grin Verlag, Munich 2007, ISBN 3-638-65570-9
  32. ↑ Zornitsa Boneva: aspectual Verbalperiphrasen in Spanish. Grin Verlag, Munich 2011, ISBN 3-640-81393-6
  33. ^ Holger Siever: Translate Spanish into German. A work book. Narr study books, Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-8233-6391-0 , pp. 66–67.
  34. ↑ Ulrike Schwall: Aspectuality: a semantic-functional category. Gunter Narr Verlag, Tübingen 1991, ISBN 3-8233-4207-X , p. 158 ( online at books.google.de)