Peter the Great and Israeli system of government: Difference between pages
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{{redirect|Peter the Great|the king of Aragon|Peter III of Aragon}} |
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{{Politics of Israel}} |
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{{otheruses4|Russian ruler|the [[Kirov class battlecruiser]]|Russian battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy}} |
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{{Israelis}} |
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{{Infobox Russian Royalty|monarch |
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'''Politics of Israel''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Israel]] is the [[head of government]], and of a [[multi-party system]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the [[Knesset]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system of the [[State of Israel]] and its main principles are set out in 11 [[Basic Laws of Israel|Basic Laws]]. |
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| name =Peter I the Great |
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| title =Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias<br>Duke of Estonia and Livonia |
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| image =Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg |
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| caption = |
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| reign = [[7 May]] [[1682]]–[[8 February]] [[1725]] |
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| coronation =[[25 June]] [[1682]] |
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| predecessor =[[Feodor III of Russia|Feodor III]] |
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| successor =[[Catherine I of Russia|Catherine I]] |
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| spouse =[[Eudoxia Lopukhina]]<br />[[Catherine I of Russia|Martha Skavronskaya]] |
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| issue =[[Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia]]<br />[[Alexander Petrovich|Grand Duke Alexander]]<br />[[Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia|Grand Duchess Anna]]<br /> [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth]]<br /> [[Natalia Petrovna|Grand Duchess Natalia]] |
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| imperial house =[[House of Romanov]] |
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| father =[[Alexis I of Russia|Alexander I]] |
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| mother =[[Nataliya Naryshkina]] |
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| date of birth ={{birth date|1672|6|9|df=y}} |
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| place of birth =[[Moscow]] |
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| date of death ={{death date and age|1725|2|8|1672|6|9|df=y}} |
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| place of death = |
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| date of burial = |
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| place of burial = |
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|}} |
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==Legislative branch== |
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'''Peter I the Great''' or '''Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov''' ({{lang-ru|Пётр Алексе́евич Рома́нов, Пётр I, ''Pyotr I'', or Пётр Вели́кий, ''Pyotr Velikiy''}}) ({{OldStyleDate|9 June|1672|30 May}}–{{OldStyleDate|8 February|1725|28 January}})<ref>Dates indicated by the letters "O.S." are [[Julian calendar|Old Style]]. All other dates in this article are [[Gregorian calendar|New Style]].</ref> ruled [[Russia]] and later the [[Russian Empire]] from {{OldStyleDate|7 May|1682|27 April}} until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his weak and sickly half-brother, [[Ivan V of Russia|Ivan V]]. Peter carried out a policy of [[Westernization]] and expansion that transformed the [[Tsardom of Russia]] into the 3-billion acre [[Russian Empire]], a major [[Europe]]an power. |
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===Knesset=== |
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{{main|Knesset}} |
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Peter was born in 1672 in [[Moscow]], Russia to [[Alexis I of Russia]] and his second wife [[Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina]], within the walls of the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]]. |
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The Knesset ({{lang-he|כנסת}}, lit. ''Assembly'') is Israel's [[unicameral]] parliament. Its 120 members are elected to 4-year terms through [[party-list proportional representation]] (''see'' [[#Electoral system|electoral system]], below), as mandated by the 1958 [http://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic2_eng.htm Basic Law: The Knesset]. As the [[legislative branch]] of the Israeli government, the Knesset enacts laws, supervises government activities, and is empowered to elect or remove the [[President of Israel|President of the State]] or [[Comptroller of Israel|State Comptroller]] from office. |
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[[Image:Young peter.jpg|thumb|left|Young Peter with imperial regalia.]] |
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The [[Israeli legislative election, 2006|March 2006 elections]] produced five prominent [[political parties]]; [[Kadima]], [[Labor Party (Israel)|Labor]], [[Shas]], [[Likud]] and [[Israel Beytenu]], each with more than ten seats in the Knesset. However, only once has a single party held the 61 seats needed for a majority government (the [[Alignment (political party)|Alignment]] from 1968 until the [[Israeli legislative election, 1969|1969 elections]]). Therefore, aside from that one exception, since 1948 Israeli governments have always comprised [[coalition government|coalitions]]. As of 2006, there are 12 political parties represented in the Knesset, spanning both the political and religious spectra. |
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On 29 January, 1676, [[Tsar]] [[Alexis I]] died, leaving the sovereignty to Peter's elder half-brother, the weak and sickly [[Feodor III]]. He died six years later in 1682. As Feodor did not leave any children, a dispute arose between the [[Naryshkina|Naryshkin]] and [[Maria Miloslavskaya|Miloslavsky]] families over who should inherit the throne. Peter's other half-brother, [[Ivan V]], was the next for the throne, but he was chronically ill and of infirm mind. Consequently, the [[Boyar|Boyar Duma]] (a council of Russian nobles) chose the ten-year old Peter to become Tsar, his mother becoming regent. But one of Alexei's daughters from his first marriage, [[Sophia Alekseyevna]], led a rebellion of the [[Streltsy]] (Russia's elite military corps). In the subsequent conflict, some of Peter's relatives and friends were murdered, and Peter witnessed some of these acts of political violence.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press|page=p. 214}}</ref> |
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===Electoral system=== |
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The Streltsy uprising of April-May 1682 made it possible for Sophia, the Miloslavskys (the clan of Ivan), and their allies, to insist that Peter and Ivan be proclaimed joint Tsars, with Ivan being acclaimed as the senior of the two. Sophia acted as regent during the minority of the two sovereigns and exercised all power. Peculiarly, a large hole was cut in the back of the dual-seated throne used by Ivan and Peter. Sophia would sit behind the throne and listen as Peter conversed with nobles, also feeding him information and giving him responses to questions and problems. This throne can be seen in the Kremlin museum in Moscow. For seven years, she ruled as an autocrat. |
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Israel's electoral law is based on a Basic Law (''The Knesset'') and the 1969 ''[[Knesset Elections Law]]''. |
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The Knesset's 120 members are elected by [[secret ballot]] to 4-year terms, although the Knesset may decide to call for new elections before the end of its 4-year term. In addition a [[motion of confidence]] may be called. Voting is carried out using the [[highest averages method]] of [[party-list proportional representation]], using the [[d'Hondt method|d'Hondt formula]]. General elections are [[closed list]]; that is, voters vote only for party lists and cannot affect the order of candidates within the lists and since the 1992 ''Parties Law'', only registered parties may stand. There are no separate electoral districts; all voters vote on the same party lists. [[Suffrage]] is universal among Israeli citizens aged 18 years or older, but voting is optional. Polling locations are open throughout [[Israel]]; absentee ballots are limited to diplomatic staff and the [[merchant marine]]. While each party attains one seat for 1 in 120 votes, there is a minimum threshold (currently 2% [http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm]) for parties to attain their first seat in an election. |
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Peter was not particularly concerned that others ruled in his own name. He engaged in such pastimes as shipbuilding and sailing, as well as mock battles with his [[Toy army of Peter I|toy army]]. Peter's mother sought to force him to adopt a more conventional approach and arranged his marriage to [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]] in 1689.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press|page=p. 218}}</ref> The marriage was a failure, and ten years later Peter forced her to become a nun and thus freed himself from the union. |
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This electoral system, inherited from the [[Yishuv]] (Jewish settlement organization during the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate)]], makes it very difficult for any party to gain a working majority in the Knesset and thus the government is generally formed on the basis of a coalition. The prime minister is selected by the president as the party leader most able to form a government, based on the number of parliament seats her or his coalition has won. After the president's selection, the prime minister has forty-five days to form a government. The members of the cabinet must be collectively approved by the Knesset. |
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By the summer of 1689, Peter planned to take power from his half-sister Sophia, whose position had been weakened by two unsuccessful [[Crimea]]n campaigns. When she learned of his designs, Sophia began to conspire with the leaders of the streltsy, who continually aroused disorder and dissent of the tsar's rule. Unfortunately for Sophia, Peter, warned by the Streltsy, escaped in the middle of the night to the impenetrable monastery of [[Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra|Troitsky]]; there he slowly gathered his adherents and others, who perceived he would win the power struggle. She was therefore overthrown, with Peter I and Ivan V continuing to act as co-tsars. Peter forced Sophia to enter a convent, where she gave up her name and position as a member of the royal family. |
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In an attempt at electoral reform, in the May 1996 elections, Israelis voted for the prime minister directly, but direct election has since been repealed and the former system re-enacted. |
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Still, Peter could not acquire actual control over Russian affairs. Power was instead exercised by his mother, Nataliya Naryshkina. It was only when Nataliya died in 1694 that Peter became an independent sovereign.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 216}}</ref> Formally, Ivan V remained a co-ruler with Peter, although he was still ineffective. Peter became the sole ruler when Ivan died in 1696. |
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[[Image:Peter benois.jpg|thumb|250px|''Peter the First Looking at the Baltic Sea.'']] |
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==Judicial system== |
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Peter grew to be quite tall as an adult, especially for the time period. Standing at 6'8" (200 cm) in height, the Russian tsar was literally head and shoulders above his contemporaries both in Russia and throughout Europe.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press|page=p. 216}}</ref> Peter, however, lacked the overall proportional heft and bulk generally found in a man that size. Both Peter's hands and feet were small, and his shoulders narrow for his height; likewise, his head was also small for his tall body. Added to this were Peter's noticeable facial tics, and, judging by descriptions handed down, he may have suffered from ''[[absence seizure|petit mal]]'', a form of [[epilepsy]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The seizures of Peter Alexeevich |author=Hughes, John R.|date=2007|publisher=''Epilepsy & Behavior (10:1)''|pages=pp.179–182}}</ref> |
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The Judicial branch is an independent branch of the government, including secular and religious courts for the various [[Religion in Israel|religions present]] in Israel. The court system involves 3 stages of justice. |
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=== Judicial courts === |
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Filippo Baltari, a young Italian visitor to Peter's court, wrote: |
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Israeli judicial courts consist of a three-tier system: |
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<blockquote>"Tsar Peter was tall and thin, rather than stout. |
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* '''Magistrate Courts''' serves as the court of first instance |
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His hair was thick, short, and dark brown; he had |
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* '''District Courts''' serves as the appellate courts and also serve as the court of first instance for some cases; |
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large eyes, black with long lashes, a well-shaped mouth, but the lower |
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* '''[[Supreme Court of Israel|Supreme Court]]''' is located in [[Jerusalem]] and acts as an appellate court, and as the '''High Court of Justice''' as a court of first instance often in matters concerning the legality of decisions of state authorities. |
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lip was slightly disfigured...For his great height, his feet seemed very narrow. His head was sometimes tugged to the right by convulsions."</blockquote> |
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In December 1985, Israel informed the [[UN Secretariat]] that it would no longer accept compulsory [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction. |
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Otherwise, judging by documents—or lack thereof—that have managed to survive to the present day, few contemporaries, either in or outside of Russia, commented on Peter's great height or appearance. |
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=== Religious courts === |
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{{seealso|Religion in Israel}} |
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Peter the Great had two wives with whom he had 11 children. His eldest child and heir, Alexis, was suspected of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Emperor, and eventually died under mysterious circumstances in prison. |
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Some issues of family law (marriage and divorce in particular) fall either under the jurisdiction of religious courts or under parallel jurisdiction of those and the state's family courts. The state maintains and finances Rabbinical, Sharia and various Canonical courts for the needs of the various religious communities. All judges are civil servants, and required to uphold general law in their tribunals as well. The High court of Justice serves as final appellate instance for all religious courts. |
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===Early reign=== |
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The [[Jewish]] religious authorities are under control of the Prime Minister's Office and the [[Chief rabbi|Chief Rabbinate of Israel]]. These courts have jurisdiction in only five areas: [[Kashrut]], [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], [[Jewish burial]], [[Jewish view of marriage|marital]] issues (especially divorce), and [[Ger tzedek|Jewish status]] of immigrants. However, except for determining a person's marital status, all other marital issues may also be taken to secular Family Courts. |
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Peter implemented sweeping reforms aimed at [[Modernization|modernizing]] Russia. Heavily influenced by his western advisors, Peter reorganized the Russian army along European lines and dreamed of making Russia a maritime power. He faced much opposition to these policies at home, but brutally suppressed any and all rebellions against his authority, the rebelling of streltsy, [[Bashkirs]], [[Astrakhan]] and including the greatest civil uprising of his reign, the [[Bulavin Rebellion]]. Further, Peter implemented social westernization in an absolute manner by requiring courtiers, state officials, and the military to shave their beards and adopt Western clothing styles.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 221}}</ref> |
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The other major religions in Israel, such as [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]], are supervised by their own establishments of religious law. These courts have similar jurisdiction over their followers, although Muslim religious courts have more control over family affairs. |
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To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought to gain more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was the [[White Sea]] at [[Arkhangelsk]]. The [[Baltic Sea]] was at the time controlled by [[Sweden]] in the north, while the [[Black Sea]] was controlled by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the south. Peter attempted to acquire control of the Black Sea, but to do so he would have to expel the [[Tatars]] from the surrounding areas. He was forced, as part of an agreement with [[Poland]], which ceded [[Kiev]] to Russia, to wage war against the [[Crimea]]n Khan and against the Khan's overlord, the Ottoman Sultan. Peter's primary objective became the capture of the Ottoman fortress of [[Azov]], near the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]]. In the summer of 1695 Peter organized the [[Azov campaigns]] in order to take the fortress, but his attempts ended in failure. Peter returned to Moscow in November of that year, and promptly began building a large navy. He launched about thirty ships against the Ottomans in 1696, capturing Azov in July of that year. On [[September 12]], [[1698]], Peter officially founded the first [[Russian Navy]] base, [[Taganrog]]. |
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[[Image:Antokolski Peter the Great.jpg|thumb|left|The Peter the Great statue in [[Taganrog]] by [[Mark Antokolski]]]] |
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Peter knew that Russia could not face the Ottoman Empire alone. In 1697, he traveled incognito to Europe on an 18-month journey with a large Russian [[delegation]]–the so-called [[Grand Embassy of Peter I|"Grand Embassy"]]—to seek the aid of the European monarchs.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 218}}</ref> Peter's hopes were dashed; [[France]] was a traditional ally of the Ottoman Sultan, and [[Austria]] was eager to maintain peace in the east whilst conducting its own wars in the west. Peter, furthermore, had chosen the most inopportune moment; the Europeans at the time were more concerned about [[War of Spanish Succession|who would succeed]] the childless Spanish King [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]] than about fighting the Ottoman Sultan. |
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==Political conditions== |
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The "Great Embassy", although failing to complete the mission of creating an anti-Ottoman alliance, still continued to travel across Europe. In visiting [[Holland]], Peter learned much about Western culture. He studied shipbuilding in [[Zaandam]] and [[Amsterdam]]. Thanks to the mediation of [[Nicolaas Witsen]], mayor of Amsterdam and expert on Russia par excellence, the Tsar was given the opportunity to gain practical experience in the largest shipyard in the world, belonging to the [[Dutch East India Company]], for a period of four months. The Tsar helped with the construction of an [[East Indiaman]] especially laid down for him: ''Peter and Paul''. During his stay the tsar engaged many skilled workers such as builders of [[Lock (water transport)|locks]], fortresses, shipwrights and seamen. [[Cornelis Cruys]], a vice-admiral who became under [[Franz Lefort]] the Tsar's advisor in maritime affairs. Besides Peter paid a visit to [[Frederik Ruysch]], who taught him how to draw teeth and catch butterflies. Also [[Ludolf Bakhuysen]], a painter of seascapes and [[Jan van der Heyden]] the inventor of the fire hose, received Peter, who was keen on learning and bringing home what he had seen. On [[January 16]] [[1698]] Peter organized his farewell party and invited [[Joan Huydecoper II|Johan Huydecoper van Maarsseveen]], who had to sit between Lefort and the tsar and drink. |
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[[Golda Meir]], a former Israeli Prime Minister, joked that "in Israel, there are 3 million prime ministers". Because of the [[proportional representation]] system, there is a large number of political parties, many of whom run on very specialized platforms, often advocating the tenets of particular interest groups. |
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The prevalent balance between the largest parties means that the smaller parties can have disproportionately strong influence to their size. Due to their ability to act as tie breakers, they often use this status to block legislation or promote their own agenda, even contrary to the manifesto of the larger party in office. |
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Israeli politics is dominated by [[Zionist]] parties which traditionally fall into three camps, the first two being the largest: [[Labor Zionism]] (which has [[social democrat]] colors), [[Revisionist Zionism]] (which shares some traits with [[tories]] or [[conservatism|conservatives]] in other countries) and [[Religious Zionism]] (although there are several non Zionist [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] religious parties, as well as [[anti-Zionist]] Israeli Arab parties). |
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[[Image:PetertheGreat statue.JPG|thumb|right|200px|A statue of Peter I on the bank of the [[Moskva River]] is one of the tallest outdoor sculptures in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archibase.net/archinews/14805.html |title=Top 10 Highest Monuments around the World |accessdate=2008-03-21 |format=HTML |work=Architecture portal news}}</ref>]] |
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From the founding of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977, Israel was ruled by successive [[coalition government]]s led by the Labor Alignment (or [[Mapai]] prior to 1967). From 1967 to 1970, a [[national unity government]] included all of Israel's parties except for the two factions of the [[Communist Party of Israel]]. After the 1977 election, the Revisionist Zionist Likud bloc, then composed of [[Herut]], the Liberals, and the smaller [[La'am]] Party, came to power forming a coalition with the [[National Religious Party]], [[Agudat Israel of Israel|Agudat Israel]], and others. |
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In England he met with King [[William III of England|William III]], visited [[Greenwich]], [[Oxford]], was painted by sir [[Godfrey Kneller]] and saw a [[Fleet Review, Royal Navy]] in [[Deptford, London|Deptford]]. He also travelled to the fledgling city of Manchester to learn the techniques of city building he would later use to great effect at Saint Petersburg. Then the Embassy went to [[Leipzig]], [[Dresden]] and [[Vienna]]. He spoke with [[August the Strong]] and [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor]]. The Embassy did not make it to [[Venice]]. The visit of Peter was cut short in 1698, when he was forced to rush home by a [[Streltsy Uprising|rebellion of the ''streltsy'']]. The rebellion was, however, easily crushed before Peter returned home from [[England]]; of the Tsar's troops, only one was killed. Peter nevertheless acted ruthlessly towards the mutineers. Over 1200 of the rebels were tortured and executed, and Peter ordered that their bodies be publicly exhibited as a warning to future conspirators.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 220}}</ref> The ''streltsy'' were disbanded, and the individual they sought to put on the Throne—Peter's half-sister Sophia—was forced to become a [[nun]]. |
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==Prime Ministers and governments after 1977== |
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Also, upon his return from his [[Grand Tour|European tour]], Peter sought to end his unhappy marriage. He divorced the [[Tsaritsa]], Eudoxia Lopukhina. The Tsaritsa had borne Peter three children, although only one—the [[Tsarevich]] [[Alexius Petrovich|Alexei]]—had survived past his childhood. |
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{{main|Prime Minister of Israel|History of the State of Israel}} |
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===Begin (1977-1983) and Shamir (1983-1984)=== |
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In 1698, Peter sent a delegation to [[Malta]] under boyar Boris Petrovich [[Sheremetyev]], to observe the training and abilities of the [[Knights of Malta]] and their fleet. Sheremetyev also investigated the possibility of future joint ventures with the Knights, including action against the Turks and the possibility of a future Russian naval base.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.prestel.co.uk/church/oosj/timeline.htm|title=Russian Grand Priory - Timeline|date=2004|accessdate=2008-02-09}}</ref> |
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As head of Likud, [[Menachem Begin]] became Prime Minister in 1977. He remained Prime Minister through the succeeding election in June 1981, until his resignation in the summer of 1983, when he was succeeded by his Foreign Minister, [[Yitzhak Shamir]]. After losing a Knesset [[motion of confidence]] early in 1984, Shamir was forced to call for new elections, held in July of that year. |
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The vote was split among numerous parties and provided no clear winner leaving both Labor and Likud considerably short of a Knesset majority. Neither Labor nor Likud was able to gain enough support from the small parties to form even a narrow coalition. After several weeks of difficult negotiations, they agreed on a broadly based government of national unity. The agreement provided for the rotation of the office of prime minister and the combined office of vice prime minister and foreign minister midway through the government's 50-month term. |
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Peter's visits to the West impressed upon him the notion that European customs were in several respects superior to Russian traditions. He commanded all of his courtiers and officials to cut off their long beards—causing his Boyars, who were very fond of their beards, great upset<ref name="Boyar beard article">{{cite web |url=http://english.mn.ru/english/issue.php?2002-46-3 |title=Russia as an Empire |accessdate=2008-03-21 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author=O.L. D'Or |
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|last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format=PHP |work=The Moscow News weekly |publisher= |pages= , Russian |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>—and wear European clothing. Boyars who sought to retain their beards were required to pay an annual beard tax of one hundred [[Russian ruble|rubles]]. He also sought to end arranged marriages, which were the norm among the Russian nobility, because he thought such a practice was not only barbaric but also led to domestic violence since the partners usually resented each other in this forced union.<ref>Basil Dmytryshyn, Modernization of Russia Under Peter I and Catherine II (Wiley, 1974) p.21</ref> |
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===Peres (1984-1986) and Shamir (1986-1990)=== |
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In 1699, Peter also changed the celebration of new year from 1st September to [[1 January]]. Traditionally, the years were reckoned from the purported [[creation myth|creation of the World]], but after Peter's reforms, they were to be counted from the [[Anno Domini|birth of Christ]].{{Fact|date=July 2008}}<!-- what year was it, according to the old count, when it was changed? --> |
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During the first 25 months of unity government rule, the [[Alignment (political party)|Alignment]]'s [[Shimon Peres]] served as prime minister, while Likud's Yitzhak Shamir held the posts of vice prime minister and foreign minister. Peres and Shamir switched positions in October 1986. The November 1988 elections resulted in a similar coalition government. Likud edged the Alignment out by one seat but was unable to form a coalition with the religious and right-wing parties. Likud and the Alignment formed another national unity government in January 1989 without providing for rotation. Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister, and Shimon Peres became Vice Prime Minister and Finance Minister. |
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The formation of the Alignment-Likud coalition in 1984 resulted in [[Mapam]] leaving the Alignment and eventually joining other members of the [[Israeli peace camp]] to forming the left wing [[Meretz-Yachad|Meretz]] party in 1991. |
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===Great Northern War=== |
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Peter made a temporary peace with the [[Ottoman Empire]] that allowed him to keep the captured fort of Azov, and turned his attention to Russian maritime supremacy. He sought to acquire control of the Baltic Sea, which had been taken by [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] a half-century earlier. Peter declared war on Sweden, which was at the time led by King [[Charles XII of Sweden|Charles XII]]. Sweden was also opposed by [[Denmark-Norway]], [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]], and the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. |
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[[Image:ZauerveydNA Petr1UsmirDA19.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Peter I of Russia pacifies his marauding troops after taking Narva in 1704'' by [[Nikolay Sauerweid]], 1859]] |
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The national unity government fell in March 1990, in a [[motion of no confidence]] precipitated by disagreement over the government's response to [[United States Secretary of State]] [[James Baker]]'s initiative of the [[Madrid Conference of 1991]]. This affair became known in Israel as "[[The dirty trick (Israel)|the dirty trick]]". |
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Russia turned out to be ill-prepared to fight the Swedes, and their first attempt at seizing the Baltic coast ended in disaster at the [[Battle of Narva (1700)|Battle of Narva]] in 1700. In the conflict, the forces of Charles XII used a blinding snowstorm to their advantage. After the battle, Charles XII decided to concentrate his forces against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, giving Peter I time to reorganize the Russian army. |
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===Shamir (1990-1992)=== |
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As the Poles and Lithuanians on one side and Swedes on the other fought each other, Peter founded the city of [[Saint Petersburg]] ([[burg|Germanically]] named after [[Saint Peter|Saint Peter the Apostle]]) in [[Ingria|Ingermanland]] (province of [[Swedish empire]], which he had captured) in 1703. He forbade the building of stone edifices outside Saint Petersburg — which he intended to become Russia's capital — so that all the stonemasons could participate in the construction of the new city. He also took [[Martha Skavronskaya]] as a mistress. Martha converted to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and took the name Catherine, allegedly marrying Peter in secret in 1707. In any case Peter valued Catherine and proceeded to marry her again (this time officially) at [[Saint Isaac's Cathedral]] in [[Saint Petersburg]] on [[9 February]] [[1712]]. |
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Labor Party leader Peres was unable to attract sufficient support among the religious parties to form a government. Yitzhak Shamir then formed a Likud-led coalition government including members from religious and right-wing parties. |
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Shamir's government took office in June 1990, and held power for 2 years. |
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Following several defeats, the Polish King [[August II of Poland|August II]] abdicated in 1706. Charles XII turned his attention to Russia, invading it in 1708. After crossing into Russia, Charles defeated Peter at [[Battle of Holowczyn|Golovchin]] in July. In the [[Battle of Lesnaya]], however, Charles suffered his first loss after Peter crushed a group of Swedish reinforcements marching from [[Riga]]. Deprived of this aid, Charles was forced to abandon his proposed march on [[Moscow]]. |
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===Rabin (1992-1995)=== |
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[[Image:Poltava battle.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''Peter I in the [[Battle of Poltava]]'' (a [[mosaic]] by [[Mikhail Lomonosov]])]] |
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In the June 1992 national elections, the Labor Party improved its electoral fortunes by taking 44 seats. Labor Party leader [[Yitzhak Rabin]] formed a coalition with [[Meretz-Yachad|Meretz]] (a group of three centre-left parties) and [[Shas]] (an ultra-Orthodox religious party). The coalition included the support of Arab and communist parties. Rabin became Prime Minister in July 1992. Shas subsequently left the coalition, leaving Rabin with a minority government dependent on the votes of Arab and communist parties in the Knesset. |
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Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish radical on [[November 4]], [[1995]], after the passage of the controversial [[Oslo Accords]]. Peres, then Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, once again became Prime Minister and immediately proceeded to carry forward the policies of Yitzhak Rabin, as well as the economic liberalization policies of the Rabin government, and to implement Israel's Oslo commitments (including military redeployment in the [[West Bank]] and the holding of historic Palestinian elections on [[January 20]], [[1996]]). |
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Charles XII refused to retreat to [[Poland]] or back to [[Sweden]], instead invading [[Ukraine]]. Peter withdrew his army southward, destroying any property that could assist the Swedes along the way. Deprived of local supplies, the Swedish army was forced to halt its advance in the winter of 1708–1709. In the summer of 1709, they nevertheless resumed their efforts to capture Ukraine, culminating in the [[Battle of Poltava]] on [[27 June]]. The battle was a decisive defeat for Swedish forces, ending Charles' campaign in Ukraine and forcing him into exile in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In Poland, August II was restored as King. |
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===Peres (1995-1996)=== |
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Peter, overestimating the support he would receive from Balkan allies, attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1711.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 224}}</ref> Normally, the Boyar Duma would have exercised power during his absence. Peter, however, mistrusted the boyars; he instead abolished the Duma and created a Senate of ten members. Peter's campaign in the Ottoman Empire was disastrous, and in the ensuing peace treaty, Peter was forced to return the Black Sea ports he had seized in 1697.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 224}}</ref> In return, the Sultan expelled Charles XII, but Russia was forced to guarantee safe passage to the Swedish king.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Russia, sixth edition|author=Riasanovsky, Nicholas|date=2000|page=P. 224}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Shimon Peres by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|[[Shimon Peres]]]] |
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Enjoying broad public support and anxious to secure his own mandate, Peres called for early elections after just 3 months in office. (They would otherwise have been held by the end of October 1996.) In late February and early March, a series of [[suicide bombing]] attacks by Palestinian terrorists took some 60 Israeli lives, seriously eroding public support for Peres and raising concerns about the Oslo Accords. Increased fighting in southern [[Lebanon]], which also brought [[Katyusha]] rocket attacks against northern Israel, raised tensions and weakened the government politically just a month before the 29 May elections. This was further exacerbated, despite the sharp increase in economic growth |
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===Netanyahu (1996-1999)=== |
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Peter's northern armies took the Swedish province of [[Duchy of Livonia (1629–1721)|Livonia]] (the northern half of modern [[Latvia]], and the southern half of modern [[Estonia]]), driving the Swedes back into [[Swedish Finland|Finland]]. In 1714 the Russian fleet won the [[Battle of Gangut]]. Most of Finland was [[Greater Wrath|occupied by the Russians]]. In 1716 and 1717, the Tsar revisited the Netherlands, and went to see [[Herman Boerhaave]]. He continued his travel to the [[Austrian Netherlands]] and France. The Tsar's navy was so powerful that the Russians could penetrate Sweden. Peter also obtained the assistance of the [[Electorate of Hanover]] and the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. Still, [[Charles XII]] refused to yield, and not until his death in battle in 1718 did peace become feasible. After the battle near [[Åland]] Sweden made peace with all powers but Russia by 1720. In 1721, the [[Treaty of Nystad]] ended what became known as the [[Great Northern War]]. Russia acquired [[Ingria]], [[Reval Governorate|Estonia]], [[Riga Governorate|Livonia]] and a substantial portion of [[Old Finland|Karelia]]. In turn, Russia paid two million [[Riksdaler]] and surrendered most of Finland. The Tsar was, however, permitted to retain some Finnish lands close to Saint Petersburg, which he had made his capital in 1712. He gained access to a warm-water-port during his reign for easier trading with the Western world. |
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In those elections - the first direct election of a prime minister in Israeli history - Likud leader [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] won by a narrow margin, having sharply criticized the government's peace policies for failing to protect Israeli security. Netanyahu subsequently formed a predominantly right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the Oslo Accords, but with an emphasis on security first and reciprocity. His coalition included the Likud party, allied with the [[Tzomet]] and [[Gesher (political party)|Gesher]] parties in a single list; three religious parties (Shas, the [[National Religious Party]], and the [[United Torah Judaism]] bloc); and two centrist parties, [[Third Way (Israel)|The Third Way]] and [[Yisrael BaAliyah]]. The latter was the first significant party formed expressly to represent the interests of Israel's new [[Russia]]n immigrants. The Gesher party withdrew from the coalition in January 1998 upon the resignation of its leader, [[David Levy (Israeli politician)|David Levy]], from the position of [[Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel|Foreign Minister]]. |
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[[Image:Peter the Great Interrogating the Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Peter I interrogating his son [[Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of Russia|Alexei]], a painting by [[Nikolai Ge]] (1871)]] |
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=== |
===Barak (1999-2001)=== |
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[[Image: |
[[Image:Office of the President of Israel by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|Office of the [[President of Israel]] in 2007.]] |
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On [[27 May]] [[1999]], [[Ehud Barak]] from [[One Israel]] (an alliance of Labor, [[Meimad]] and [[Gesher (political party)|Gesher]]) was elected Prime minister, and formed a coalition with the [[Centre Party (Israel)|Centre Party]] (a new party with centrist views, led by former generals [[Yitzhak Mordechai]] and [[Amnon Lipkin-Shahak]]), the left-wing Meretz, Yisrael BaAliyah, the religious Shas and the National Religious Party. The coalition was committed to continuing negotiations; however, during the two years of the government's existence, most parties left the coalition, leaving Barak with a minority government of the Labor and the center party alone. Barak was forced to call for [[Israeli prime ministerial election, 2001|early elections]]. |
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===Sharon (2001-2006)=== |
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Peter I's last years were marked by further reform in Russia. On [[22 October]], [[1721]], soon after peace was made with Sweden, he was acclaimed ''Emperor of All Russia''. Some proposed that he take the title ''Emperor of the East'', but he refused. [[Gavrila Golovkin]], the State Chancellor, was the first to add "the Great, Father of His Country, Emperor of [[All the Russias]]" to Peter's traditional title [[Tsar]] following a speech by the archbishop of [[Pskov]] in 1721. |
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On [[February 17]], [[2001]], elections resulted in a new "national unity" coalition government, led by [[Ariel Sharon]] of the Likud, and including the Labor Party. This government fell when Labor pulled out, and new elections were held [[January 28]], [[2003]]. |
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Based on the [[Israel legislative election, 2003|election results]], Sharon was able to form a right-wing government consisting of the Likud, Shinui, the National Religious Party and the National Union. The coalition focused on improving Israeli security through fighting against terror, along with combating economic depression. However, when Sharon decided on his [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|2004 disengagement plan]], which included evacuation of Israeli settlements in the [[Palestinian territories]] (particularly the [[Gaza Strip]]), the National Union and National Religious Party withdrew from the coalition. Sharon's attempt to add the Haredi United Torah Judaism to the coalition drove Shinui out, and forced Sharon to bring the Labor Party back into his coalition. |
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Peter's imperial title was recognized by [[Augustus II of Poland]], [[Frederick William I of Prussia]] and [[Frederick I of Sweden]], but not by the other European monarchs. In the minds of many, the word ''emperor'' connoted superiority or pre-eminence over "mere" kings. Several rulers feared that Peter would claim authority over them, just as the Holy Roman Emperor had once claimed suzerainty over all Christian nations. |
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Since not all Likud Knesset members supported Sharon's disengagement plan, he still lacked a clear majority in the Knesset. Apparently calculating that his personal popularity was greater than that of the party, Sharon pulled out of the Likud on [[November 21]], [[2005]] and formed his own new [[Kadima]] party. He was joined only days later by Shimon Peres, who pulled out of the Labor party to join Sharon in a bid for a new government. This represents a cataclysmic realignment in Israeli politics, with the former right and left joining in a new centrist party with strong support (unlike previous centrist parties in Israel, which lacked the popularity Kadima now seems to enjoy). |
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During Peter's reign the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was reformed. The traditional leader of the Church was the [[List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow|Patriarch of Moscow]]. In 1700, when the office fell vacant, Peter had refused to name a replacement, allowing the Patriarch's Coadjutor (or deputy) to discharge the duties of the office. Twenty-one years later, in 1721, Peter followed the advice of [[Feofan Prokopovich]] and erected the [[Holy Synod]], a council of ten clergymen, to take the place of the Patriarch and Coadjutor. Peter also implemented a law which stipulated that no Russian man could join a monastery before the age of 50. He felt that too many able Russian men were being wasted away by clerical work when they could be joining his new and improved army.<ref>Basil Dmytryshyn, Modernization of Russia Under Peter I and Catherine II (Wiley, 1974) p.18</ref> And in 18th century Russia, few people (men and women) lived to over a half century, therefore very few men became monks during Peter's reign, much to the dismay of the Russian Church. |
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===Olmert (2006-present)=== |
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In 1722, Peter created a new [[order of precedence]], known as the [[Table of Ranks]]. Formerly, precedence had been determined by birth. In order to deprive the [[Boyars]] of their high positions, Peter directed that precedence should be determined by merit and service to the Emperor. The Table of Ranks continued to remain in effect until the Russian monarchy was overthrown in 1917. In addition, Peter decided that all of the children of the nobility should have some early education, especially in the areas of sciences. Therefore, on [[February 28]] [[1714]], he introduced the decree on compulsory education which dictated that all Russian children of the nobility, of government clerks and even lesser ranked officials between the ages of 10 and 15 must learn basic mathematics and geometry and that they should be tested on it at the end of their studies.<ref>Basil Dmytryshyn, Modernization of Russia Under Peter I and Catherine II (Wiley, 1974) p.10-11</ref> |
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{{Wikinews|Shimon Peres discusses the future of Israel}} |
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On January 4, 2006 Prime Minister Sharon suffered a massive stroke and went into a [[coma]], in which he still remains. Designated [[Deputy leaders of Israel#Acting Prime Minister|Acting Prime Minister]] [[Ehud Olmert]] took power, becoming interim Prime Minister 100 days after Sharon's incapacitation. He did not become full Prime Minister due to elections being held in March and a new government being formed. |
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Following the [[Israeli legislative election, 2006|March 2006 elections]], which left [[Kadima]] as the largest party in the Knesset, Olmert became prime minister. He included [[Labor Party (Israel)|Labour]], [[Shas]] and [[Gil (political party)|Gil]] in a 67-seat coalition. In November 2006, [[Yisrael Beiteinu]] (11 seats) also joined the government, but departed from the coalition in January 2008. |
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Peter also introduced new taxes to fund improvements in Saint Petersburg. He abolished the land tax and household tax, and replaced them with a [[capitation]]. The taxes on land on households were payable only by individuals who owned property or maintained families; the new head taxes, however, were payable by [[serf]]s and paupers. |
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==Political parties and elections== |
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In 1724, Peter had his second wife, [[Catherine I of Russia|Catherine]], crowned as Empress, although he remained Russia's actual ruler. All of Peter's male children had died—the eldest son, [[Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of Russia|Alexei]], had been tortured and killed on Peter's orders in 1718 because he had disobeyed his father and opposed official policies. At the same time, Alexei's mother Eudoxia had also been punished; she was dragged from her home and tried on false charges of adultery. A similar fate befell Peter's beautiful mistress, [[Anna Mons]], in 1704. |
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{{elect|List of political parties in Israel|Elections in Israel}} |
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{{main|Israeli legislative election, 2006}} |
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{{Israel legislative election, 2006}} |
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==Other political groups== |
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In 1725, construction of [[Peterhof]], a palace near Saint Petersburg, was completed. Peterhof ([[Dutch language|Dutch]] for "Peter's Court") was a grand residence, becoming known as the "Russian [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]". |
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Israeli politics are subject to unique circumstances and often defy simple classification in terms of the [[political spectrum]]. Groups are sometimes associated with the political left or right, especially in international circles, according to their stance on issues important to the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. |
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=== |
===Political right=== |
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On the [[political right]]: |
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In the winter of 1723, Peter, whose overall health was never robust, began having problems with his [[urinary tract]] and [[Urinary bladder|bladder]]. In the summer of 1724 a team of doctors performed the necessary surgery releasing upwards of four pounds of blocked urine. Peter remained bedridden till late autumn. Then in the first week of October, restless and certain he was cured, Peter began a lengthy inspection tour of various projects. According to legend, it was in November, while at [[Lakhta]] along the Finnish Gulf to inspect some ironworks, that Peter saw a group of soldiers drowning not far from shore and, wading out into near-waist deep water, came to their rescue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/CMHPeter.html|title=Peter the Great and his pupils|author=Bain, R. Nisbet|date=1905|publisher=Cambridge University|accessdate=2008-02-09}}</ref> |
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*[[Gush Emunim]], Israeli nationalists advocating Jewish settlement of the [[West Bank]] and formerly the [[Gaza Strip]], and opposing evacuation of any of these settlements. (Largely defunct) |
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*[[Yesha Council]] (''Yesha'' being a Hebrew [[acronym]] for "Judea, Samaria and Gaza"), a loose formation of local office-bearers in the [[Disputed Territories]] that claims to represent the interests of the [[Israeli settlements|Israeli settlers]] in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. They have high influence through strong organization and highly motivated communities. |
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*[[Almagor]]: association of [[Terrorism|terror]] victims. |
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*[[Professors for a Strong Israel]] |
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===Political left=== |
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[[Image:Nikitin peter deathbed.jpg|left|thumb|Peter the |
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On the [[political left]]: |
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Great on his deathbed.]] |
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*[[Israeli peace camp|the self identified Israeli "Peace Camp"]] is a coalition of parties and non-parliamentary groups which desire to promote peace between Israel and its Arab neighbours and to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict through a return to the pre-1967 border and the establishment of an independent Palestinian state. |
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This icy water rescue is said to have exacerbated Peter's bladder problems and caused his death on [[February 8]], [[1725]]. The story, however, has been viewed with skepticism by some historians, pointing out that the German chronicler [[Jacob von Stählin]] is the only source for the story, and it seems unlikely that no one else would have documented such an act of heroism. This, plus the interval of time between these actions and Peter's death seems to preclude any direct link. However, the story may still, in part, contain some grain of truth. |
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*[[Anarchism in Israel]]: Israeli political movements with either an anti-nationalistic agenda or a fundamental opposition to government in general. [[Anarchists Against the Wall]] is a high-profile group that regularly protests the Israel-Palestine "wall". |
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*[[Peace Now]] supports territorial concessions in the West Bank and was critical of government's policy in withdrawing from Lebanon after the 1982-6 war and the subsequent withdrawal from [[South Lebanon]]. |
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*[[Geneva Initiative]] and [[The People's Voice]] (''HaMifkad HaLeumi''), two peace initiatives led by prominent Israeli and Palestinian public figures that surfaced in 2004. These initiatives were based on unofficial bilateral understandings between the two sides, and offer models for a permanent agreement.<!-- Merge with Peace Camp --> |
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*Ha[[Histadrut]] ("The Union"; short for "the General Union of the Workers in Israel"), an umbrella organization for many [[trade union|labor union]]s in Israel. In the past, was identified with the different forms of the Israel Labor party; nowadays, the chairman of the Histadrut is [[Offer Eyni]]. The former chairman is [[Amir Peretz]] became head of the socialist [[One Nation (Israel)|One Nation]] party, which eventually merged into the Labor in 2004, which Peretz is heading since November 2005. |
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*Several radical left-wing organizations calling soldiers to [[refusal to serve in the Israeli military|refuse service]] in the West Bank and Gaza; the best known are [[Ometz LeSarev]] ("Courage to Refuse") and [[Yesh Gvul]] (There's a limit/border). |
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*[[Ma'avak Sotzialisti]] (Socialist Struggle) campaigns against [[privatisation]] and the worsening conditions faced by workers and young people in Israel. |
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===Political centre=== |
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In early January 1725, Peter was struck once again with [[uremia]]. Legend has it that before lapsing into unconsciousness Peter asked for a paper and pen and scrawled an unfinished note that read: ''"Leave all to...."'' and then, exhausted by the effort, asked for his daughter Anna to be summoned.<ref>The 'Leave all..." story first appears in H-F de Bassewitz ''Russkii arkhiv'' 3 (1865). Russian historian E.V. Anisimov contends that Bassewitz's aim was to convince readers that Anna, not Empress Catherine, was Peter's intended heir.</ref> |
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On the [[Political centre]]: |
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The political centre (represented in [[Knesset]] by [[Kadima]] and [[Gil (political party)|Gil]], and in the past represented by [[Shinui]]) combines a lack of the confidence from the Political right wing on the negotiations with the Arabs with the assertion of the Political left wing that Israel should condense the Israeli attendance in the areas of the [[West Bank]]. As a result of that, the Political centre supports unilateral actions such as the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]] and [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]] alongside the continuation of the militaristic actions ( such as the [[Selective assassination]] policy) to fighting against terror. Economically, the centre is liberal and supports [[Economic liberalism]] and has a [[Capitalism|capitalistic approach]]. Until recently, the Political centre in the Knesset was very little - it never passed the 15 mandates on the average and the centre parties disintegrated within less than two terms (for example: [[Democratic Movement for Change]], the [[Centre Party (Israel)|Centre Party]] and [[Shinui]]). Other centre parties split up between the two main big parties, like [[Yachad (1984)|Yachad]] ([[Ezer Weizman]]'s party, which merged into the [[Alignment (political party)|Alignment]] in 1987), [[Telem]] ([[Moshe Dayan]]'s party, which eventually split up between the Alignment party and [[Likud]]), [[Independent Liberals (Israel)|Independent Liberals]] (also merged into the Alignment) and the [[General Zionists]] (which together with [[Herut]] created [[Gahal]], the forerunner of Likud). |
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Peter died between four and five in the morning [[February 8]], [[1725]]. An [[autopsy]] revealed his bladder to be infected with [[gangrene]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The seizures of Peter Alexeevich |author=Hughes, John R.|date=2007|publisher=''Epilepsy & Behavior (10:1)''|pages=pp.179–182}}</ref> He was fifty-two years, seven months old when he died, having reigned forty-two years. |
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Also parties which do not identify themselves as political right or political left are considered to be centre parties. For example: [[The Greens (Israel)|The Greens]] which focuses on environmental subjects and up until today has not been able to enter the Knesset. |
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[[Image:Bronze Horseman and St'Isaac's cathedral 1890-1900.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The most famous (1782) statue of Peter I in [[Saint Petersburg]], informally known as the ''[[Bronze Horseman]]''.]] |
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[[Image:Peter the Great tomb.JPG|thumb|250px||The tomb of Peter the Great in [[Peter and Paul Fortress]].]] |
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===Interest groups=== |
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Peter inherited an uneducated, untrained, uncivilized and superstitious country that excluded itself from European society, economy, and politics. In large measure, Peter exchanged tradition in favor of modernization. Peter the Great prodded a relatively backwards Muscovy state into a modernized Russia that competed with other European powers. |
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*The [[kibbutz]]im lobby, which seek to receive financial aid from the government. |
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*The agriculture lobby, which seek to receive subsidies and tax relief on water. |
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*The lobby for promoting the status of women, a [[feminist]] group which co-operates with the Knesset. |
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*The lobby for the release of [[Jonathan Pollard]], a Jewish [[spy]] jailed in the [[USA]] |
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*[[Or Yarok]] ("Green Light"): an organization devoted to reducing road accidents in [[Israel]] through education, enforcement, improvement of infrastructure and the establishment of a national task force to research the problem and formulate a long-term plan to reduce car accidents. |
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== |
===Others=== |
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*Notable [[rabbi]]nic figures have considerable influence on several Israeli parties and politicians, notably Shas and United Torah Judaism. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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*[[Neturei Karta]], an anti-zionist fringe [[Haredi]] group that rejects Israel and refrains from taking part in elections. They have little to no effect on Israeli politics. |
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|- |
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*[[The Monitor Committee of Israeli Arabs]]: an Arab group, claiming to represent the interests of the [[Israeli Arab]] minority in Israel, tend to be separatists and hence perceived as hostile by the Jewish majority and have little influence in politics. |
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!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes |
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|colspan=4|'''''By Eudoxia Lopukhina''''' |
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|- |
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|[[Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia|HIH Alexei Petrovich, Tsarevich of Russia]]||[[18 February]] [[1690]]||[[26 June]] [[1718]]||Married 1711, [[Princess Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]]; had issue. |
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|- |
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|HIH Alexander Petrovich, Grand Duke of Russia||[[13 October]] [[1691]]||[[14 May]] [[1692]]|| |
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|HIH Pavel Petrovich, Grand Duke of Russia||1693||1693|| |
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|- |
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|colspan=4|'''''By Catherine I''''' |
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|- |
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|Pavel Petrovich||1704||1707||Born and died before the official marriage of his parents. |
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|- |
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|Peter Petrovich||1705||1707||Born and died before the official marriage of his parents. |
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|- |
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|Catherine Petrovna||7 February 1707||1708||Born and died before the official marriage of his parents. |
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|- |
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|[[Anna Petrovna|HIH Anna Petrovna, Tsesarevna of Russia]]||[[27 January]] [[1708]]||[[15 May]] [[1728]]||Married 1725, [[Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp|Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp]]; had issue. |
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|- |
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|[[Elizabeth of Russia|HIM Empress Elizabeth]]||[[29 December]] [[1709]]||[[5 January]] [[1762]]||Reputedly married 1742, [[Alexei Grigorievich, Count Razumovsky]]; no issue |
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|- |
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|HIH Maria Petrovna, Grand Duchess of Russia||[[20 March]] [[1713]]||[[27 May]] [[1715]]|| |
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|HIH Margarita Petrovna, Grand Duchess of Russia||[[19 September]] [[1714]]||[[7 June]] [[1715]]|| |
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|- |
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|HIH Peter Petrovich, Grand Duke of Russia||[[15 November]] [[1715]]||[[19 April]] [[1719]]|| |
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|- |
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|HIH Pavel Petrovich, Grand Duke of Russia||[[13 January]] [[1717]]||[[14 January]] [[1717]]|| |
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|[[Natalia Petrovna (1718-1725)|HIH Natalia Petrovna, Grand Duchess of Russia]]||[[31 August]] [[1718]]||[[15 March]] [[1725]]|| |
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|Stillborn daughter||1720||1720|| |
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|HIH Peter Petrovich, Grand Duke of Russia||[[7 October]] [[1723]]||[[7 October]] [[1723]]|| |
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|} |
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==Political issues== |
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== Peter I in popular culture == |
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Major issues in Israeli political life include: |
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{{Trivia|date=July 2008}} |
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Peter has been featured in many books, plays, films and games including poems ''[[The Bronze Horseman (poem)|The Bronze Horseman]]'' and ''Poltava'' and the unfinished novel ''[[Peter the Great's Negro]]'' by [[Alexander Pushkin]] and Sid Meyers Civilization IV, the game. The former dealt with a famous [[The Bronze Horseman|equestrian statue]], raised in Peter's honour. [[Alexey Nikolayevich Tolstoy]] wrote a biographical historical novel about him, named "Petr I", in 1930's, which, along with its adaptations, became a major influence on Peter's subsequent portrayals. |
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*The [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] and [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] |
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There is a 1976 film, [[Skaz pro to, kak tsar Pyotr arapa zhenil]] (How Tsar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor), starring [[Aleksey Petrenko]] as Peter, and [[Vladimir Vysotsky]] as [[Abram Petrovich Gannibal]]. Much of the film shows Peter's attempt to build the [[Baltic Fleet]]. |
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*The [[relationships between Jewish religious movements]] |
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*The nature of the state of Israel; (e.g. in what ways should it represent Judaism and in what ways should it represent secular democracy?) (see [[Jewish State]] and [[Religion in Israel]]) |
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*The economy, and trade issues with other nations. |
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==International organization participation== |
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Peter was played by [[Maximilian Schell]] in ''[[Peter the Great (TV Series)]]'' (1986) an NBC mini-series. The series also featured [[Vanessa Redgrave]], [[Trevor Howard]], [[Omar Sharif]] and [[Sir Laurence Olivier]]. |
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[[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation|BSEC]] (observer), [[Council of Europe|CE]] (observer), [[CERN]] (observer), [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[International Mobile Satellite Organization|Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] (partner), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organization|WToO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTrO]]. |
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==Districts== |
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The 2007 film, [[Sluga Gosudarev]], depicts the unsavoury, brutal side of Peter during the [[Poltava]] campaign. |
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{{main|Districts of Israel}} |
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For governmental purposes, Israel is divided into six districts: [[Center District, Israel|Central]], [[Haifa District|Haifa]], [[Jerusalem District|Jerusalem]], [[North District, Israel|Northern]], [[Southern District, Israel|Southern]], [[Tel Aviv District|Tel Aviv]]. Administration of the districts is coordinated by the [[Ministry of Interior (Israel)|Ministry of Interior]]. The [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)|Ministry of Defense]] is responsible for the administration of the [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied territories]]. |
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==Arab-Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties== |
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Peter is also featured in the computer game [[Civilization IV]] as one of the leaders of the [[Russian Empire]]. |
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*[[Paris Peace Conference, 1919]] |
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*[[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement|Faisal-Weizmann Agreement (1919)]] |
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*[[1949 Armistice Agreements]] |
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*[[Camp David Accords (1978)]] |
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*[[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty (1979)]] |
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*[[Madrid Conference of 1991]] |
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*[[Oslo Accords|Oslo Accords (1993)]] |
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*[[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace (1994)]] |
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*[[Camp David 2000 Summit]] |
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*[[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] |
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*[[Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]] |
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*[[List of Middle East peace proposals]] |
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*[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]] |
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==References== |
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Peter is one of many supporting characters in Neal Stephenson's ''Baroque Cycle'' - mainly featuring in the third novel, ''The System of the World''. |
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*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng Knesset web site] |
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*Pasquale Amato, ''Unità socialista in Israele, Intervista con Victor Shemtov'', in "Mondoperaio", Rome, January 1981, pp. 47-51 |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[Knesset]] |
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*[[Tsars of Russia family tree]] |
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*[[List of Knesset members]] |
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{{commons|Peter I of Russia}} [[Image:Sankt Petersburg Peter der Grosse 2005 a.jpg|thumb|150px|Monument to Peter the carpenter in St. Petersburg.]] |
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*[[List of Knesset speakers]] |
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*[[Russian history, 1682-1796]] |
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*[[ |
*[[List of political parties in Israel]] |
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*[[ |
*[[List of Israelis]] |
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*[[ |
*[[List of Likud Knesset Members]] |
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*[[ |
*[[Prime Minister of Israel]] |
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* |
*[[President of Israel]] |
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*[[Basic Laws of Israel]] |
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*[[RFS Pyotr Velikiy|RFS ''Pyotr Velikiy'']], a Russian Navy battlecruiser named after Peter the Great |
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*[[Law of Return]] |
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*[[Who is a Jew?]] |
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*[[Religion in Israel]] |
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*[[Anarchism in Israel]] |
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*[[Israeli Security Forces]] |
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*[[Israeli judicial system]] |
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==External links== |
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{{Asia topic|Politics of}} |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{Politics of Europe}} |
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[[Category:Court systems by country]] |
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[[Category:Government of Israel]] |
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[[Category:Israeli law]] |
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[[Category:Politics of Israel|*]] |
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[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] |
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[[cs:Politický systém Státu Izrael]] |
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== References == |
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[[da:Israels politik]] |
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* [[Robert K. Massie|Massie, Robert K.]] ''Peter the Great: His Life and World''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1980 (hardcover, ISBN 0-394-50032-6); New York: Ballantine Books, 1981 (paperback, ISBN 0-345-29806-3); 1986 (paperback, ISBN 0-345-33619-4); New York: Wings Books, 1991 (hardcover, ISBN 0-517-06483-9); London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 1-84212-116-2). Pulitzer Prize-winning biography of Peter I. |
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[[de:Politisches System Israels]] |
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* Hughes, Lindsey. ''Russia in the Age of Peter the Great''. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-07539-1; paperback, ISBN 0-300-08266-5) |
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[[es:Gobierno y política de Israel]] |
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* Hughes, Lindsey. ''Peter the Great: A Biography''. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-09426-4); 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-300-10300-X). |
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[[fr:Politique d'Israël]] |
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* ''Peter the Great and the West: New Perspectives (Studies in Russian and Eastern European History)'', edited by Lindsey Hughes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-333-92009-0). |
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[[he:פוליטיקה של ישראל]] |
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* Troyat, Henri. ''Peter the Great''. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1987 (hardcover, ISBN 0-525-24547-2). |
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[[ja:イスラエルの政治]] |
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* [[Stephen Graham (author)]] ''Peter the Great: A Life of Peter I of Russia called The Great'' Biographical work with 367 pages, plus Index. Not Illustrated, other than a black and white frontispiece portrait of '''Peter the Great'''.<ref> Detail from a copy of '''Peter the Great....''' published by [[Ernest Benn]] [[London]] in 1929 with no ISBN </ref> |
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{{succession box|title=[[List of Russian rulers|Tsar of Russia]]|before=[[Feodor III of Russia|Feodor III]]|after=—|years=1682–1721<br />''with [[Ivan V of Russia|Ivan V]] 1682–1696''}} |
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{{succession box two to one|before1=—|before2=[[Frederick I of Sweden|Frederick I]]|title1=[[List of Russian rulers|Emperor of Russia]]|title2=[[List of Estonian rulers|Duke of Estonia and Livonia]]|years1=1721–1725|after=[[Catherine I of Russia|Catherine I]]|years2=1721–1725}} |
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<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --> |
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{{Russian emperors}} |
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{{List of Kings were named the Great of the World}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME=Peter the Great |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Romanov, Pyotr Alexeyevich; Peter I |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Emperor of Russia |
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|DATE OF BIRTH==[[9 June]], [[1672]] |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Moscow]] |
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|DATE OF DEATH=[[8 February]], [[1725]] |
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|PLACE OF DEATH= |
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}} |
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Revision as of 20:00, 13 October 2008
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Politics of Israel takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Israel is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Knesset. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system of the State of Israel and its main principles are set out in 11 Basic Laws.
Legislative branch
Knesset
The Knesset (Hebrew: כנסת, lit. Assembly) is Israel's unicameral parliament. Its 120 members are elected to 4-year terms through party-list proportional representation (see electoral system, below), as mandated by the 1958 Basic Law: The Knesset. As the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset enacts laws, supervises government activities, and is empowered to elect or remove the President of the State or State Comptroller from office.
The March 2006 elections produced five prominent political parties; Kadima, Labor, Shas, Likud and Israel Beytenu, each with more than ten seats in the Knesset. However, only once has a single party held the 61 seats needed for a majority government (the Alignment from 1968 until the 1969 elections). Therefore, aside from that one exception, since 1948 Israeli governments have always comprised coalitions. As of 2006, there are 12 political parties represented in the Knesset, spanning both the political and religious spectra.
Electoral system
Israel's electoral law is based on a Basic Law (The Knesset) and the 1969 Knesset Elections Law.
The Knesset's 120 members are elected by secret ballot to 4-year terms, although the Knesset may decide to call for new elections before the end of its 4-year term. In addition a motion of confidence may be called. Voting is carried out using the highest averages method of party-list proportional representation, using the d'Hondt formula. General elections are closed list; that is, voters vote only for party lists and cannot affect the order of candidates within the lists and since the 1992 Parties Law, only registered parties may stand. There are no separate electoral districts; all voters vote on the same party lists. Suffrage is universal among Israeli citizens aged 18 years or older, but voting is optional. Polling locations are open throughout Israel; absentee ballots are limited to diplomatic staff and the merchant marine. While each party attains one seat for 1 in 120 votes, there is a minimum threshold (currently 2% [1]) for parties to attain their first seat in an election.
This electoral system, inherited from the Yishuv (Jewish settlement organization during the British Mandate), makes it very difficult for any party to gain a working majority in the Knesset and thus the government is generally formed on the basis of a coalition. The prime minister is selected by the president as the party leader most able to form a government, based on the number of parliament seats her or his coalition has won. After the president's selection, the prime minister has forty-five days to form a government. The members of the cabinet must be collectively approved by the Knesset.
In an attempt at electoral reform, in the May 1996 elections, Israelis voted for the prime minister directly, but direct election has since been repealed and the former system re-enacted.
Judicial system
The Judicial branch is an independent branch of the government, including secular and religious courts for the various religions present in Israel. The court system involves 3 stages of justice.
Judicial courts
Israeli judicial courts consist of a three-tier system:
- Magistrate Courts serves as the court of first instance
- District Courts serves as the appellate courts and also serve as the court of first instance for some cases;
- Supreme Court is located in Jerusalem and acts as an appellate court, and as the High Court of Justice as a court of first instance often in matters concerning the legality of decisions of state authorities.
In December 1985, Israel informed the UN Secretariat that it would no longer accept compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
Religious courts
Some issues of family law (marriage and divorce in particular) fall either under the jurisdiction of religious courts or under parallel jurisdiction of those and the state's family courts. The state maintains and finances Rabbinical, Sharia and various Canonical courts for the needs of the various religious communities. All judges are civil servants, and required to uphold general law in their tribunals as well. The High court of Justice serves as final appellate instance for all religious courts. The Jewish religious authorities are under control of the Prime Minister's Office and the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. These courts have jurisdiction in only five areas: Kashrut, Sabbath, Jewish burial, marital issues (especially divorce), and Jewish status of immigrants. However, except for determining a person's marital status, all other marital issues may also be taken to secular Family Courts.
The other major religions in Israel, such as Islam and Christianity, are supervised by their own establishments of religious law. These courts have similar jurisdiction over their followers, although Muslim religious courts have more control over family affairs.
Political conditions
Golda Meir, a former Israeli Prime Minister, joked that "in Israel, there are 3 million prime ministers". Because of the proportional representation system, there is a large number of political parties, many of whom run on very specialized platforms, often advocating the tenets of particular interest groups. The prevalent balance between the largest parties means that the smaller parties can have disproportionately strong influence to their size. Due to their ability to act as tie breakers, they often use this status to block legislation or promote their own agenda, even contrary to the manifesto of the larger party in office.
Israeli politics is dominated by Zionist parties which traditionally fall into three camps, the first two being the largest: Labor Zionism (which has social democrat colors), Revisionist Zionism (which shares some traits with tories or conservatives in other countries) and Religious Zionism (although there are several non Zionist Orthodox religious parties, as well as anti-Zionist Israeli Arab parties).
From the founding of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977, Israel was ruled by successive coalition governments led by the Labor Alignment (or Mapai prior to 1967). From 1967 to 1970, a national unity government included all of Israel's parties except for the two factions of the Communist Party of Israel. After the 1977 election, the Revisionist Zionist Likud bloc, then composed of Herut, the Liberals, and the smaller La'am Party, came to power forming a coalition with the National Religious Party, Agudat Israel, and others.
Prime Ministers and governments after 1977
Begin (1977-1983) and Shamir (1983-1984)
As head of Likud, Menachem Begin became Prime Minister in 1977. He remained Prime Minister through the succeeding election in June 1981, until his resignation in the summer of 1983, when he was succeeded by his Foreign Minister, Yitzhak Shamir. After losing a Knesset motion of confidence early in 1984, Shamir was forced to call for new elections, held in July of that year.
The vote was split among numerous parties and provided no clear winner leaving both Labor and Likud considerably short of a Knesset majority. Neither Labor nor Likud was able to gain enough support from the small parties to form even a narrow coalition. After several weeks of difficult negotiations, they agreed on a broadly based government of national unity. The agreement provided for the rotation of the office of prime minister and the combined office of vice prime minister and foreign minister midway through the government's 50-month term.
Peres (1984-1986) and Shamir (1986-1990)
During the first 25 months of unity government rule, the Alignment's Shimon Peres served as prime minister, while Likud's Yitzhak Shamir held the posts of vice prime minister and foreign minister. Peres and Shamir switched positions in October 1986. The November 1988 elections resulted in a similar coalition government. Likud edged the Alignment out by one seat but was unable to form a coalition with the religious and right-wing parties. Likud and the Alignment formed another national unity government in January 1989 without providing for rotation. Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister, and Shimon Peres became Vice Prime Minister and Finance Minister.
The formation of the Alignment-Likud coalition in 1984 resulted in Mapam leaving the Alignment and eventually joining other members of the Israeli peace camp to forming the left wing Meretz party in 1991.
The national unity government fell in March 1990, in a motion of no confidence precipitated by disagreement over the government's response to United States Secretary of State James Baker's initiative of the Madrid Conference of 1991. This affair became known in Israel as "the dirty trick".
Shamir (1990-1992)
Labor Party leader Peres was unable to attract sufficient support among the religious parties to form a government. Yitzhak Shamir then formed a Likud-led coalition government including members from religious and right-wing parties.
Shamir's government took office in June 1990, and held power for 2 years.
Rabin (1992-1995)
In the June 1992 national elections, the Labor Party improved its electoral fortunes by taking 44 seats. Labor Party leader Yitzhak Rabin formed a coalition with Meretz (a group of three centre-left parties) and Shas (an ultra-Orthodox religious party). The coalition included the support of Arab and communist parties. Rabin became Prime Minister in July 1992. Shas subsequently left the coalition, leaving Rabin with a minority government dependent on the votes of Arab and communist parties in the Knesset.
Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish radical on November 4, 1995, after the passage of the controversial Oslo Accords. Peres, then Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, once again became Prime Minister and immediately proceeded to carry forward the policies of Yitzhak Rabin, as well as the economic liberalization policies of the Rabin government, and to implement Israel's Oslo commitments (including military redeployment in the West Bank and the holding of historic Palestinian elections on January 20, 1996).
Peres (1995-1996)
Enjoying broad public support and anxious to secure his own mandate, Peres called for early elections after just 3 months in office. (They would otherwise have been held by the end of October 1996.) In late February and early March, a series of suicide bombing attacks by Palestinian terrorists took some 60 Israeli lives, seriously eroding public support for Peres and raising concerns about the Oslo Accords. Increased fighting in southern Lebanon, which also brought Katyusha rocket attacks against northern Israel, raised tensions and weakened the government politically just a month before the 29 May elections. This was further exacerbated, despite the sharp increase in economic growth
Netanyahu (1996-1999)
In those elections - the first direct election of a prime minister in Israeli history - Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu won by a narrow margin, having sharply criticized the government's peace policies for failing to protect Israeli security. Netanyahu subsequently formed a predominantly right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the Oslo Accords, but with an emphasis on security first and reciprocity. His coalition included the Likud party, allied with the Tzomet and Gesher parties in a single list; three religious parties (Shas, the National Religious Party, and the United Torah Judaism bloc); and two centrist parties, The Third Way and Yisrael BaAliyah. The latter was the first significant party formed expressly to represent the interests of Israel's new Russian immigrants. The Gesher party withdrew from the coalition in January 1998 upon the resignation of its leader, David Levy, from the position of Foreign Minister.
Barak (1999-2001)
On 27 May 1999, Ehud Barak from One Israel (an alliance of Labor, Meimad and Gesher) was elected Prime minister, and formed a coalition with the Centre Party (a new party with centrist views, led by former generals Yitzhak Mordechai and Amnon Lipkin-Shahak), the left-wing Meretz, Yisrael BaAliyah, the religious Shas and the National Religious Party. The coalition was committed to continuing negotiations; however, during the two years of the government's existence, most parties left the coalition, leaving Barak with a minority government of the Labor and the center party alone. Barak was forced to call for early elections.
Sharon (2001-2006)
On February 17, 2001, elections resulted in a new "national unity" coalition government, led by Ariel Sharon of the Likud, and including the Labor Party. This government fell when Labor pulled out, and new elections were held January 28, 2003.
Based on the election results, Sharon was able to form a right-wing government consisting of the Likud, Shinui, the National Religious Party and the National Union. The coalition focused on improving Israeli security through fighting against terror, along with combating economic depression. However, when Sharon decided on his 2004 disengagement plan, which included evacuation of Israeli settlements in the Palestinian territories (particularly the Gaza Strip), the National Union and National Religious Party withdrew from the coalition. Sharon's attempt to add the Haredi United Torah Judaism to the coalition drove Shinui out, and forced Sharon to bring the Labor Party back into his coalition.
Since not all Likud Knesset members supported Sharon's disengagement plan, he still lacked a clear majority in the Knesset. Apparently calculating that his personal popularity was greater than that of the party, Sharon pulled out of the Likud on November 21, 2005 and formed his own new Kadima party. He was joined only days later by Shimon Peres, who pulled out of the Labor party to join Sharon in a bid for a new government. This represents a cataclysmic realignment in Israeli politics, with the former right and left joining in a new centrist party with strong support (unlike previous centrist parties in Israel, which lacked the popularity Kadima now seems to enjoy).
Olmert (2006-present)
Wikinews has related news:
On January 4, 2006 Prime Minister Sharon suffered a massive stroke and went into a coma, in which he still remains. Designated Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert took power, becoming interim Prime Minister 100 days after Sharon's incapacitation. He did not become full Prime Minister due to elections being held in March and a new government being formed.
Following the March 2006 elections, which left Kadima as the largest party in the Knesset, Olmert became prime minister. He included Labour, Shas and Gil in a 67-seat coalition. In November 2006, Yisrael Beiteinu (11 seats) also joined the government, but departed from the coalition in January 2008.
Political parties and elections
Template:Israel legislative election, 2006
Other political groups
Israeli politics are subject to unique circumstances and often defy simple classification in terms of the political spectrum. Groups are sometimes associated with the political left or right, especially in international circles, according to their stance on issues important to the Arab-Israeli conflict.
Political right
On the political right:
- Gush Emunim, Israeli nationalists advocating Jewish settlement of the West Bank and formerly the Gaza Strip, and opposing evacuation of any of these settlements. (Largely defunct)
- Yesha Council (Yesha being a Hebrew acronym for "Judea, Samaria and Gaza"), a loose formation of local office-bearers in the Disputed Territories that claims to represent the interests of the Israeli settlers in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. They have high influence through strong organization and highly motivated communities.
- Almagor: association of terror victims.
- Professors for a Strong Israel
Political left
On the political left:
- the self identified Israeli "Peace Camp" is a coalition of parties and non-parliamentary groups which desire to promote peace between Israel and its Arab neighbours and to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict through a return to the pre-1967 border and the establishment of an independent Palestinian state.
- Anarchism in Israel: Israeli political movements with either an anti-nationalistic agenda or a fundamental opposition to government in general. Anarchists Against the Wall is a high-profile group that regularly protests the Israel-Palestine "wall".
- Peace Now supports territorial concessions in the West Bank and was critical of government's policy in withdrawing from Lebanon after the 1982-6 war and the subsequent withdrawal from South Lebanon.
- Geneva Initiative and The People's Voice (HaMifkad HaLeumi), two peace initiatives led by prominent Israeli and Palestinian public figures that surfaced in 2004. These initiatives were based on unofficial bilateral understandings between the two sides, and offer models for a permanent agreement.
- HaHistadrut ("The Union"; short for "the General Union of the Workers in Israel"), an umbrella organization for many labor unions in Israel. In the past, was identified with the different forms of the Israel Labor party; nowadays, the chairman of the Histadrut is Offer Eyni. The former chairman is Amir Peretz became head of the socialist One Nation party, which eventually merged into the Labor in 2004, which Peretz is heading since November 2005.
- Several radical left-wing organizations calling soldiers to refuse service in the West Bank and Gaza; the best known are Ometz LeSarev ("Courage to Refuse") and Yesh Gvul (There's a limit/border).
- Ma'avak Sotzialisti (Socialist Struggle) campaigns against privatisation and the worsening conditions faced by workers and young people in Israel.
Political centre
On the Political centre:
The political centre (represented in Knesset by Kadima and Gil, and in the past represented by Shinui) combines a lack of the confidence from the Political right wing on the negotiations with the Arabs with the assertion of the Political left wing that Israel should condense the Israeli attendance in the areas of the West Bank. As a result of that, the Political centre supports unilateral actions such as the Israeli West Bank barrier and Israel's unilateral disengagement plan alongside the continuation of the militaristic actions ( such as the Selective assassination policy) to fighting against terror. Economically, the centre is liberal and supports Economic liberalism and has a capitalistic approach. Until recently, the Political centre in the Knesset was very little - it never passed the 15 mandates on the average and the centre parties disintegrated within less than two terms (for example: Democratic Movement for Change, the Centre Party and Shinui). Other centre parties split up between the two main big parties, like Yachad (Ezer Weizman's party, which merged into the Alignment in 1987), Telem (Moshe Dayan's party, which eventually split up between the Alignment party and Likud), Independent Liberals (also merged into the Alignment) and the General Zionists (which together with Herut created Gahal, the forerunner of Likud).
Also parties which do not identify themselves as political right or political left are considered to be centre parties. For example: The Greens which focuses on environmental subjects and up until today has not been able to enter the Knesset.
Interest groups
- The kibbutzim lobby, which seek to receive financial aid from the government.
- The agriculture lobby, which seek to receive subsidies and tax relief on water.
- The lobby for promoting the status of women, a feminist group which co-operates with the Knesset.
- The lobby for the release of Jonathan Pollard, a Jewish spy jailed in the USA
- Or Yarok ("Green Light"): an organization devoted to reducing road accidents in Israel through education, enforcement, improvement of infrastructure and the establishment of a national task force to research the problem and formulate a long-term plan to reduce car accidents.
Others
- Notable rabbinic figures have considerable influence on several Israeli parties and politicians, notably Shas and United Torah Judaism.
- Neturei Karta, an anti-zionist fringe Haredi group that rejects Israel and refrains from taking part in elections. They have little to no effect on Israeli politics.
- The Monitor Committee of Israeli Arabs: an Arab group, claiming to represent the interests of the Israeli Arab minority in Israel, tend to be separatists and hence perceived as hostile by the Jewish majority and have little influence in politics.
Political issues
Major issues in Israeli political life include:
- The Israeli-Palestinian conflict and Arab-Israeli conflict
- The relationships between Jewish religious movements
- The nature of the state of Israel; (e.g. in what ways should it represent Judaism and in what ways should it represent secular democracy?) (see Jewish State and Religion in Israel)
- The economy, and trade issues with other nations.
International organization participation
BSEC (observer), CE (observer), CERN (observer), EBRD, ECE, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO.
Districts
For governmental purposes, Israel is divided into six districts: Central, Haifa, Jerusalem, Northern, Southern, Tel Aviv. Administration of the districts is coordinated by the Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of Defense is responsible for the administration of the occupied territories.
Arab-Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties
- Paris Peace Conference, 1919
- Faisal-Weizmann Agreement (1919)
- 1949 Armistice Agreements
- Camp David Accords (1978)
- Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty (1979)
- Madrid Conference of 1991
- Oslo Accords (1993)
- Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace (1994)
- Camp David 2000 Summit
- Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
- Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs
- List of Middle East peace proposals
- International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict
References
- Knesset web site
- Pasquale Amato, Unità socialista in Israele, Intervista con Victor Shemtov, in "Mondoperaio", Rome, January 1981, pp. 47-51
See also
- Knesset
- List of Knesset members
- List of Knesset speakers
- List of political parties in Israel
- List of Israelis
- List of Likud Knesset Members
- Prime Minister of Israel
- President of Israel
- Basic Laws of Israel
- Law of Return
- Who is a Jew?
- Religion in Israel
- Anarchism in Israel
- Israeli Security Forces
- Israeli judicial system
