Religions in Israel

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Israel has defined itself as a Jewish and democratic state since its declaration of independence . According to the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics , in 2005 a total of 75.4% were Jews , 16.9% Muslims , 2.0% Christians and 1.6% Druze . The remaining 4% were not classified as religious or belonged to smaller religious communities such as the Baha'i .

Judaism

Bar Mitzvah on the western wall. The place in front of the wall is considered a synagogue; therefore, according to the orthodox understanding, gender segregation with the help of a mechitza is necessary

The state of Israel explicitly refers to the Jewish religion in its national symbols: the flag is reminiscent of the tallit , the national coat of arms of the menorah , a cult object of the Jerusalem temple, which was destroyed by Roman soldiers in 70 . Jewish holidays are national holidays in Israel; the Sabbath is the public day of rest. Jerusalem has played a prominent role for the Jewish people since ancient times. This has a national component, according to biblical traditions, Jerusalem was the capital of the Davidic-Solomonic Empire , as well as a religious one: the central sanctuary stood on the Temple Mount until it was destroyed in AD 70. The western wall is a remnant of the outer perimeter wall of the Herodian temple .

The Return Act , formulated under the impression of the Holocaust, defines being a Jew in the sense of Nazi racial legislation: "Whoever was called a Jew by the National Socialists and sent to the death camps should find refuge in the newly founded State of Israel." The right to Israel Immigration was granted to anyone with a Jewish grandparent and the spouse of such an immigrant. This meant that numerous people who had no personal connection to Judaism could still exercise this right of return. On the other hand, the purely Orthodox Israeli Chief Rabbinate has a different, stricter definition of Jewishness, so that many people who have immigrated to Israel under the right of return are not considered Jews and therefore cannot marry a Jewish partner: especially immigrants with a Jewish father and a non-Jewish father Mother and immigrants who converted to Judaism outside of Israel, provided that this happened in liberal or conservative synagogues that the Israeli chief rabbinate does not recognize. The Supreme Court has not yet taken the much-requested step of recognizing conversions to Judaism that have taken place in non-Orthodox Jewish communities. An amendment to the Law of Return banned persons entitled to immigrate to Israel in 1970 if they had voluntarily converted to another religion (the law did not explain exactly what a change of religion was). According to the Jewish religious law, a convert is still considered a Jew.

According to a survey by the Pew Research Center (2014/2015), Jewish Israelis describe their personal religiosity as follows:

  • 49% secular (chiloni),
  • 29% traditional (masorti),
  • 13% modern Orthodox (dati),
  • 9% ultra-orthodox (charedi).

Since 2002, the mostly child-rich Charedim have recorded a percentage increase in their population group from 6 to 9%, the Masortiim a slight decrease, while the other two groups have remained more or less constant. The average age is significantly higher among the secular. The two traditional Jewish subgroups of the Sephardim and Ashkenazim can be assigned to this classification in such a way that Ashkenazim are more secular or ultra-Orthodox, Sephardim are more traditional or modern-Orthodox. The ultra-Orthodox are characterized by very high religious observance (e.g. daily prayer, weekly synagogue visits), while the modern-Orthodox give somewhat lower values. The Masortiim are an inhomogeneous group in this regard, among which there are both people who pray daily, but also 30% who say they never pray. They are also the group with the most social contact with other Jewish subgroups.

A majority of the Orthodox (69%) and ultra-Orthodox (86%) think it would be good if the religious law (Halacha) became state law, but this is what a majority of the traditional (57%) and especially the secular (90%) is rejected. This assessment is confirmed where in the study the opinion on specific topics, e.g. B. Gender segregation in local public transport, was asked. Permission for rabbis of Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism to perform weddings in Israel is rejected by a large majority of the ultra-Orthodox (96%) and modern-Orthodox (87%), but also by 70% of the Masortiim and would only have one among the secular Majority; Even in this group, however, 28% of those questioned are in favor of the sole responsibility of the Orthodox rabbis. When it comes to political questions, the large group of seculars is located in the political center, while the modern-religious are further to the right than traditional and ultra-religious.

Islam

Ramadan decoration in Jerusalem (2010)

The Al-Aqsa Mosque is considered by Muslims to be the third most important mosque in Islam (after the mosques in Mecca and Medina ). Most Israeli Muslims are ethnic Arab or Arabic-speaking and belong to the Sunni branch ; their share in the total population of Israel has increased from 9% (1949) to 18% (2014). They live in small towns and villages, especially in Galilee (where they make up over 50% of the population), in the Meshulash region and in the Negev ; in the latter desert region, it is mostly Bedouins.

According to the Pew survey of 2014/2015, the Muslims among the four main groups (Jews, Muslims, Christians, Druze) are those with the highest religious observance. For example, 61% say they pray daily, and around half of Muslims go to mosques at least once a week. The younger respondents were significantly less religiously practicing than the older ones, a difference to the Jewish part of the population, where no difference in age groups was found in this regard.

The Arab minority (including Christians and Druze) perceive discrimination by different groups of people more as a problem in Israeli society than the majority Jewish population; Muslim Israelis are particularly discriminated against - say 79% of Arabs, but only 21% of Jews. Around a third of the Muslims surveyed mentioned their own current experiences of discrimination.

Because of the religious freedom that prevails in Israel, Haifa is the only mosque of the Ahmadiyya movement in the Middle East; the predecessor of today's Mahmud Mosque was built in 1934. This mosque is the center of the Kababir district, which is 70% inhabited by Ahmadis.

There is a village with Alawites in the Golan Heights .

Christianity

Historic photo of the entrance to the Holy Sepulcher
Inside of the Baptist Church in Nazareth

Since late antiquity, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem have been the holiest places in Christianity and are destinations for pilgrimages. The Christians are a small minority in Israel. At the end of 2019 there were 177,000 Christians in Israel, which corresponds to a population share of 2.0%. Around 137,000 (77.5%) of them are Arab Christians , around 40,000 (22.5%) are non-Arab Christians. 70.6% of Arab Christians live in the northern district , which comprises the greater part of Galilee . 13.3% of Arab Christians live in Haifa and 9.5% in Jerusalem. The cities with the largest number of Christians are Nazareth (21,900 Christians), Haifa (16,100 Christians), Jerusalem (12,700 Christians) and Shefar'am (10,300 Christians).

The proportion of the individual denominations in the Christian population in Israel is estimated by the Israeli government as follows:

Ten Christian denominations are officially recognized by the Israeli government, which means that the clergy of these denominations can carry out official acts such as marriages and divorces. These are Orthodox and Oriental churches, the Roman Catholic Church and churches united with Rome. The (Anglican) Episcopal Church has had this status as the only denomination from the Protestant spectrum since 1970.

In 2014, the Knesset created the possibility for some Christian citizens to assign themselves to the ethnic-religious group of the Arameans instead of the Arab population. The condition for this is membership in the Maronite, Greek-Orthodox, Greek-Catholic (Melkite), Syrian-Catholic or Syrian-Orthodox Church . About 200 families in northern Israel made use of it. The Aramaic identity of this ethno-religious group is seen by the Israeli government in a historical continuity to the Aramaeans of the ancient Near East and since late antiquity through the existence of several Aramaic-speaking Christian churches on the soil of the Byzantine Empire . The issue of an Aramaic identity distinct from Arabism was put on the agenda in the context of an initiative to recruit young Christians for the Israel Defense Forces; at the same time, the Aramaic-Maronite Center began activities to promote the Aramaic language.

The approximately 3,000 Armenian Christians live mainly in the Armenian Quarter of Jerusalem's old town . The majority of the approximately 2000 Coptic Christians also live in East Jerusalem. The Ethiopian Christians mostly live in the Jerusalem area.

There are no reliable figures about the number of so-called messianic Jews among the Israelis, who are spread over around 80 congregations. A vicariate for Hebrew-speaking Catholics was founded in 1955, while the three messianic congregations in Jerusalem studied by Martin Steiner were set up in the 1980s and 1990s as house groups in the vicinity of Protestant churches. When the Jerusalem Baptist Church on Narkis Street was destroyed by an arson attack in 1982, the Roʿe Jisraʾel congregation went into business for itself , making it the first messianic congregation in Israel that did not meet in Protestant worship dreams.

The Jehovah's Witnesses deny as everywhere, including in Israel military service and make no oath on the Israeli flag. There are 1564 missionaries from 27 congregations in Israel.

The New Apostolic Church in Israel, which is assigned to the District Church of Southern Germany, has seven congregations and around 700 members. In November 1985 Chief Apostle Richard Fehr consecrated a new church in Nazareth.

In Mormonism , the land of Israel has had great theological significance since Orson Hyde dedicated the land to the "gathering of the scattered remains of Judah" on the Mount of Olives in 1841 . Hyde later became president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles . In this tradition, Brigham Young University established a Jerusalem Center for Middle East Studies , which began operating on the Mount of Olives in 1981 with the approval of the Israeli government. The condition for this was that the center should devote itself exclusively to educational and cultural tasks and refrain from any mission among Israeli Jews.

Other religions

Bahai Gardens in Haifa

143,000 Druze live in northern Israel (as of 2019). This corresponds to 1.6% of the population of Israel.

The Samaritans form their own religious community, which, like Judaism, emerged from the people of Israel. Today there are two communities in Israel ( Cholon ) and in the West Bank with around 800 Samaritans. Since 1967 the exchange between both groups and the common celebration of Passover on Mount Garizim has been possible. Samaritans who live in the West Bank have been able to obtain dual citizenship (Israeli and Palestinian) at their own request since 1996. Originally, the Samaritans were included under the Law of Return and were considered Jews in this sense. In 1992, under the influence of religious parties, the Knesset declared that Samaritans were not Jews, but were members of another religion. This contradicted the Samaritan self-image as descendants of the ancient Israelites, and so the community sued the Supreme Court and won in 1997. However, this did not change the position of the Chief Rabbinate, who does not recognize Samaritans as Jews and therefore makes formal conversion a condition before marrying a Jew.

Several hundred Baha'i live in Israel, mostly in Haifa and Akko . There are important pilgrimage destinations for this post-Islamic religion, which form the Baha'i World Center , which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2008 .

Contrary to the public perception that Buddhism came to Israel through migrant workers from Asia, Euro-American groups played a mediating role in establishing Buddhist circles in the 1990s. While the Israel Vipassana Trust stands in the tradition of Satya Narayan Goenka and sees itself as non-religious, Stephen Fulder ( Tovana ) combines Buddhist and Jewish elements, such as observing the Sabbath.

Religion and secular state

Marriage and divorce

Jewish wedding in Israel, 2016

Israel is the only liberal state that grants religious communities a monopoly on marriage law. The 1953 Law on Jurisdiction of Rabbinical Courts states: “1. Marriage and divorce between Jewish citizens or residents of Israel are under the sole jurisdiction of the rabbinical courts. 2. Marriage and divorce of Jews in Israel must take place according to Jewish religious law. ”Although the quoted section only refers to Jews, the law as a whole affects all citizens of Israel and gives the respective religious communities a monopoly to marry and divorce. The counterpart to the orthodox rabbinate for non-Jews is, depending on their religious affiliation, the Sharia court (for Muslims), the religious court of the Druze, the Baha'i or that of ten Christian denominations. “In each of the fourteen state-recognized religious communities there are non-believers within the official religion. The non-Orthodox Jews are the most visible because they are very numerous. But there are also openly non-Orthodox Muslims, Druze, Christians and Baha'i. The religious freedom of these individuals is restricted by the current structures. "

The Jewish religious law does not provide for a mixed religious marriage. For Israelis whose status as Jews is unclear, there is no possibility of a Jewish marriage.

For secular Israeli Jews, religious marriage may not be compatible with their personal beliefs:

  • there are restrictions on the choice of spouses (among other things, they must be Jewish; a Kohen cannot marry a divorced woman);
  • the bride must go to a ritual bath ( mikveh ) before the wedding ceremony ;
  • the ceremony has patriarchal elements.

In the judgment of Funk-Schlesinger v. Minister of Interior , the Supreme Court ruled in 1962 that the Israeli civil registry officer was obliged to register a civil marriage between a Belgian Catholic and an Israeli Jew in the Belgian consulate in Cyprus without checking its validity under Israeli law; In doing so, the court expressly did not make a decision on the substantive validity of such a marriage.

A step in this direction was taken in 2003 in the case of a civil marriage in Cyprus, when the husband filed for divorce from his wife in a rabbinical court. The court declared the marriage divorced, so that both partners had the option of a new marriage; it was refrained from issuing a divorce letter , as it would actually have been in accordance with Jewish law. The wife appealed to the Supreme Court against this divorce; this asked the supreme rabbinical court to explain this procedure. The Supreme Rabbinical Court stated that a Jewish couple who of their own free will preferred a civil marriage to a Jewish one, through this act rejected the halacha and expressed their will not to be married under Jewish law. Jewish law also contains regulations on the marriage of non-Jews, since one of the Noahidic commandments , which are binding on all people, is the prohibition of adultery. Since Maimonides , this area of ​​Jewish law has applied that marriages and divorces among non-Jews are considered halachically valid if they are in accordance with the laws of the respective society. The court, however, broke new ground by stating that Israeli Jews could marry in two ways, either as Jews or as Noahids. If they choose the latter through a civil marriage abroad, their marriage is halachically valid and can therefore also be dissolved by a rabbinical court. The practice of rabbinical courts since 2003 has been more conservative and regards the halachic status of civil marriages as ambiguous; In the event of a divorce, the husband is advised to write a divorce certificate in order to create a halachically clear situation.

In 2010 the Knesset passed the Law on Non-Religious Civil Partnerships , which gives couples who are not married according to Jewish, Muslim, Druze or Christian rites largely the same rights as married couples.

funeral

Until the 1990s, requests to designate a secular cemetery were consistently denied by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Secular burial has been permitted by law since the 1996 right to alternative civil burial , but difficult as there are few secular cemeteries. One can therefore still speak of a de facto monopoly of rabbinical authorities in the funeral world.

School system

In the Orthodox Jewish segment of Israeli society, it is controversial whether the state should also establish a core curriculum in religious schools. This is supported by the fact that a lack of secular education is a disadvantage on the Israeli labor market. About 20% of Charedi elementary schools and 40% of Charedi high schools are "exempt", which means that the Ministry of Education has little influence on the curriculum, teaching methods, the recruitment of teachers or the management of schools. In total (as of 2019) 332,000 students are registered in ultra-Orthodox schools, the vast majority of whom attend schools that belong to networks that are close to the Charedi parties United Torah Judaism and Shas . Here it is assumed that general education and thus qualifications for the Israeli labor market are guaranteed.

military service

The Religious Zionism considered to serve in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) is positive, almost a religious duty ( mitzvah ): Who namely the State of Israel defending against his enemies, fill the commandment to save lives ( Pikuach Nefesh ). This has posed challenges to the Religious Zionists since the army was founded: The experience as a soldier may lead to a secular way of life, as time-bound religious duties (such as prayer), kashrut or gender segregation cannot always be followed in the military, or the Orthodox-Jewish soldier becomes social outsider would. Religious Zionism counteracts this with special educational programs for soldiers ( Hesder ). Women with a religious Zionist background usually apply for exemption from military service for religious reasons. About 25% of the graduates from Orthodox high schools serve in the army; a minority of them take part in educational programs for women soldiers (Gar'inim program, Midrashot as an equivalent for the yeshivot visited by men).

Demonstration by Charedim against the drafting of yeshiva students for military service, Jerusalem 2014

In the Holocaust which destroyed Nazi Germany the strongholds of Toragelehrsamkeit in Eastern Europe. The State of Israel released yeshiva students from military service in order to continue a tradition of education that was threatened in its existence. In itself, studying at a yeshiva is a life program that is just as difficult to combine with a job as it is with military service. In the 1960s, however, there were IDF units for Charedi men who did not see themselves as scholars. In the 1970s, however, ultra-Orthodox Judaism took a stricter stance, and young men who chose military service (this was out of the question for women) were exposed to criticism from their community. With limited success, a program was re-launched in the 1990s to enable Charedim to serve in IDF units specially tailored to their way of life (Nachal Charedi). The Kharedim abstinence from military service is viewed critically by the Israeli public. The fact that people from the national religious spectrum are very present in the army devalues ​​the argument of the Charedim that a religious way of life is incompatible with military service. In the 2003 Knesset elections, the Shinui party ran with the goal of removing this charedim privilege.

Protection of religious feelings

In Israeli law, willfully violating other people's religious feelings is a criminal offense:

“A person is punished with one year imprisonment for one of the following offenses: 1. Publication of a work which in a raw manner is likely to offend the religious beliefs or feelings of others; 2. utterance of any word or noise in a public place and audible to others, which in a crude way is likely to offend the religious beliefs or feelings of others. "

Blocking a road on the Sabbath, Jerusalem 2011

Rechov Bar-Ilan is one of the main thoroughfares in the north of Jerusalem, which leads through parts of the city mainly (95%) inhabited by Orthodox and Ultra-Orthodox Jews. These residents wanted the road to be closed on the Sabbath because the traffic offended their religious feelings. (There are several comparable road closures on Sabbath and public holidays in Jerusalem and Bne Brak .) They underlined their concerns through demonstrations, whereupon secular activists carried out counter-demonstrations. The Department of Transportation had ordered the road to be closed on Sabbath and public holidays during church services, both sides sued, and the Supreme Court upheld the Department of Transportation's decision in 1997. It recognized that the residents wanted to create a special Sabbath atmosphere that could not only be felt in private apartments, but also in public spaces, and that street noise would destroy it.

Sabbath in public life

Already during the British mandate there were controversies in the Yishuv about observance of the Sabbath rest, and compromise solutions followed. For example, public transport paused on the Sabbath except in Haifa and Eilat , because there the religious were a minority among the Jewish population. The law on hours of work and rest , passed in 1951, has since been the subject of clashes among Israelis of various religious observances. For Orthodox, a sabbath according to the halacha would be the goal, including the closure of restaurants, cinemas and other leisure facilities. For secular Israelis, the public holiday is characterized by the fact that leisure activities are available and can also be reached by public transport. In the decades since the law was introduced, the secular segment of the population has largely been able to assert its interests: many shops and shopping centers ignore the law and are open on the Sabbath. The opening times of leisure facilities are the responsibility of the municipalities and are therefore different. Bus traffic is largely stopped on the Sabbath, but taxi companies are working.

literature

  • Gideon Sapir, Daniel Statman: State and Religion in Israel: A Philosophical-Legal Inquiry . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2019.
  • Shimon Shetreet: The Model of State and Church Relations and Its Impact on the Protection of Freedom of Conscience and Religion: A Comparative Analysis and a Case Study of Israel . In: Winfried Brugger , Michael Karayanni: Religion in the Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis of German, Israeli, American and International Law . Springer, Berlin et al. 2007, pp. 87–161.
  • Barak Medina: Does the Establishment of Religion Justify Regulating Religious Activities? - The Israeli Experience. In: Winfried Burger, Michael Karayanni: Religion in the Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis of German, Israeli, American and International Law . Springer, Berlin et al. 2007, pp. 299-332.
  • Michael Karayanni: The “Other” Religion and State Conflict in Israel: On the Nature of Religious Accommodations for the Palestinian-Arab Minority . In: Winfried Burger, Michael Karayanni: Religion in the Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis of German, Israeli, American and International Law . Springer, Berlin et al. 2007, pp. 333–377.
  • Ruth Gavison: Days of Worship and Days of Rest: A View from Israel . In: Winfried Burger, Michael Karayanni: Religion in the Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis of German, Israeli, American and International Law . Springer, Berlin et al. 2007, pp. 379-414.
  • Ofra G. Golan: Human Rights and Religious Duties: Informed Consent to Medical Treatment under Jewish Law . In: Winfried Burger, Michael Karayanni: Religion in the Public Sphere: A Comparative Analysis of German, Israeli, American and International Law . Springer, Berlin et al. 2007, pp. 415-434.
  • Steven V. Maze: Israel's Higher Law: Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State . Lexington Books, Oxford 2006.
  • Daniel Statman: Hurting Religious Feelings . In: Democratic Culture 3/2000, pp. 199-214. ( PDF )
  • The quarterly magazine Religions in Israel , published by the Israel Interfaith Association, provides information on the subject .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics: Population, by Religion and Population . Statistical Abstract of Israel 2006 (No. 57), online as PDF ( memento of the original from July 9, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. retrievable. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www1.cbs.gov.il
  2. ↑ a b c d e The Knesset: The State of Israel as a Jewish State .
  3. ↑ a b c d e Pew Research Center: Israel's Religiously Divided Society (2016).
  4. ↑ a b c d Mordechai Zaken: Between state welfare and slow assimilation. Minorities in Israel . ( Society for Threatened Peoples ; the author Mordechai Zaken is head of the Minority Affairs Office in the Ministry of Public Security (Israel) .).
  5. ↑ a b Israel Central Bureau of Statistics: האוכלוסייה הנוצרית בישראל, P. 1, December 22, 2019, accessed December 30, 2019.
  6. ^ A b Eytan Halon: Israel's Christian population grows to 177,000 citizens. In: The Jerusalem Post . 23 December 2019.
  7. ^ A b c Eti Weissblei: Arameans in the Middle East and Israel: Historical Background, Modern National Identity, and Government Policy . (The Knesset, Research and Information Center, April 3, 2017).
  8. ^ Yishai Eldar: Focus on Israel: The Christian Communities of Israel (Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
  9. ↑ Martin Steiner: Between Church and Synagogue: Messianic Jews in Jerusalem . LIT Verlag, Vienna 2019, p. 136.
  10. ↑ Source: 2017 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses
  11. ^ New Apostolic Church South Germany: Areas Abroad - Israel .
  12. ^ Frank J. Johnson, William J. Leffler: Jews and Mormons: Two Houses of Israel , Hoboken 2000, p. 38.
  13. ↑ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics:האוכלוסייה הדרוזית בישראל (PDF), p. 2, April 17, 2019, accessed December 30, 2019.
  14. ↑ Reinhard Pummer: The Samaritans: A profile . Eerdmans, Cambridge 2016, p. 296.
  15. ↑ Joseph Loss: Dr. Stephen John Fulder, Founder of Vipassana in Israel . In: Todd Lewis (ed.): Buddhists: Understanding Buddhism Through the Lives of Practitioners , Wiley, Chichester 2014, pp. 124-131.
  16. ^ Gideon Sapir, Daniel Statman: State and Religion in Israel: A Philosophical-Legal Inquiry , Cambridge 2019, p. 168.
  17. ^ Martin Edelman: Courts, Politics, and Culture in Israel . UVA Press, Charlottesville 1994, p. 124.
  18. ↑ Shimon Shetreet: The Model of State and Church Relations and Its Impact on the Protection of Freedom of Conscience and Religion: A Comparative Analysis and a Case Study of Israel , Berlin et al. 2007, p. 153.157. Talia Einhorn: Israeli International Family Law - the Liberalization of Israel Nouns Family Law . In: Hans-Eric Rasmussen-Bonne: Balancing of interests: liber amicorum Peter Hay for the 70th birthday of a tanner , Frankfurt am Main 2005, pp. 141–150, here pp. 141 f.
  19. ↑ Gideon Sapir, Daniel Statman: State and Religion in Israel: A Philosophical-Legal Inquiry , Cambridge 2019, pp. 178-180.
  20. ^ Law of the Couples' Association for Couples Devoid of Religion , cf. Gideon Sapir, Daniel Statman: State and Religion in Israel: A Philosophical-Legal Inquiry , Cambridge 2019, p. 183.
  21. ↑ Shimon Shetreet: The Model of State and Church Relations and Its Impact on the Protection of Freedom of Conscience and Religion: A Comparative Analysis and a Case Study of Israel , Berlin et al. 2007, p. 154.
  22. ^ Lior Dattel: One Third of Israel's Religious Students Are Exempt From Studying Math, Science and English . In: Haaretz, May 13, 2019. ( online )
  23. ↑ Elisheva Rosman-Stollman: For God and Country ?: Religious Student-Soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces , Austin 2014, pp. 46–56. 123 f.
  24. ↑ Nurit Stadler, Edna Lomsky-Feder, Eyal Ben-Ari: Fundamentalist citizenships: the Haredi Challenge . In: Guy Ben-Porat, Bryan S. Turner: The Contradictions of Israeli Citizenship: Land, Religion and State . Routledge, New York 2011, pp. 135-157.
  25. ↑ Criminal Law 5737-1977, § 173. See Gideon Sapir, Daniel Statman: State and Religion in Israel: A Philosophical-Legal Inquiry , Cambridge 2019, p. 105.
  26. ^ Daniel Statman: Hurting Religious Feelings , 2000, pp. 199 f. 210.
  27. ^ Asher Cohen, Bernard Susser: Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity: The Secular-Religious Impasse . Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2000, pp. 27-29.