Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī

Abū l-Qāsim ʿAbdallāh ibn Ahmad al-Kaʿbī al-Balchī ( Arabic أبو القاسم عبد الله بن أحمد الكعبي البلخي, DMG Abū l-Qāsim ʿAbdallāh ibn Aḥmad al-Kaʿbī al-Balḫī ; died 19 August 931 in Balch was) a mu'tazilitischer Kalam -Gelehrter that especially in Khorasan worked, and the last great theoretician of Mu'tazilite School of Baghdad was. Al-Balchī was an extremely prolific writer who, in addition to Kalām, also studied Koranic exegesis , Fiqh , Adab, and doxography . In his writings, he not only dealt critically with the teachings of contemporary philosophical thinkers such as Rhazes and Abū ʿAlī al-Jubbā'ī , but also with the growing hadith scholarship, which received support from the Abbasid caliphs in the period after the Mihna .

Abū Mansūr al-Māturīdī , who discusses al-Balchī's teachings in great detail in his Kitāb at-Tauḥīd , notes there that he was venerated by the Muʿtazilites like an " imam of all humanity" ( imām ahl al-arḍ ). The Muʿtazilite school of teaching founded by al-Balchī, which was particularly characterized by the fact that it denied God the attribute of will, is referred to in the Sunni sources as Kaʿbīya or Balchīya. In the area of ​​Fiqh, al-Balchī belonged to the Hanafi teaching direction. In terms of his political views, he was a Zaidit .

Life

Origin and early years

Little is known about Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī's origins; his Nisba al-Kaʿbī is said to go back to an ancestor named Kaʿb. His father was close to the Tahirid dynasty and may have been one of their administrators. Al-Chatīb al-Baghdādī reports that al-Balchī narrated a book on the praiseworthy qualities of the Tahirids ( Kitāb Maḥāsin Āl Ṭāhir ), which his father had received from ʿAbdallāh ibn Tāhir . Al-Balchī's father also narrated a hadith from ʿAbdallāh ibn Tāhir about the writing of the Basmala . From Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī himself a poem for the Tahirid ruler Muhammad ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Tāhir (r. 862-873) has come down to us.

Studied in Baghdad

Al-Balchī lived for a long time in Baghdad , where he studied with the Muʿtazilite Abū l-Husain al-Chaiyāt (d. 913) and the philologist al-Mubarrad (d. 898) and had access to the circle of the well-known Persian writer and Muʿtazilite Abū Ahmad Yahyā ibn ʿAlī Ibn al-Munaddschim (855-912), who was visited by the great Kalām scholars of the time. He also met with the Sufi al-Junaid in Baghdad . and had doctrinal conversations with al-Hasan ibn Mūsā an-Naubachtī . After ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad , al-Balchī also had contact with Abū ʿAlī al-Jubbā'ī , who valued him more than his teacher al-Chaiyāt. Al-Balchī also wanted to visit al-Jubbā'ī on the way back to Khorasan, but al-Chaiyāt is said to have prevented this out of injured vanity.

Even after al-Balchī had permanently returned to Khorasan, he kept coming to visit the capital and cultivated friendships with its scholars, especially with the father of the grammarian al-Marzubānī (d. 994), who distributed his books in Baghdad. He had a long-lasting correspondence with al-Chaiyāt. The inquiries about certain problem areas that al-Balchī addressed to his teacher were known as al-Balḫīyāt .

As a secretary to the Zaidis in Tabaristān

Possibly immediately after his stay in Baghdad, al-Balchī entered the service of Muhammad ibn Zaid (d. 900), the Zaidite Dāʿī of Tabaristan, as secretary . In this function he also accompanied him to Jurdschān . It was here that Yahyā ibn al-Husain, who later went to Yemen and founded the Zaidite Imamate of Yemen under the surname al-Hādī ilā al-Haqq , became his disciple.

As a vizier in Balkh

Since al-Balchī met al-Hallādj in Balch in 887 , it can be assumed that he had already returned to his hometown at that time. In Balch he maintained friendly relations with the scholar Abū Zaid al-Balchī and defended him against the accusation of heresy ( zandaqa ), which he had earned because of his preoccupation with logic. As-Safadī reports that Abū l-Qasim al-Balchī himself was also accused of heresy in Balkh.

When Ahmad ibn Sahl al-Marwazī, the rebellious governor of the Samanid Nasr II. Ibn Ahmad (r. 914-943) brought Khorasan under his control in Nishapur and came to Balch, he made Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī his vizier and Abū Zaid al-Balchī to his secretary. Abū l-Qāsim received a monthly salary of 1,000 dirhams, Abū Zaid one of 500 dirhams. When Ahmad ibn Sahl was defeated by his overlord in 919, Abū l-Qāsim was thrown into prison. When he fell ill there, ʿAlī ibn ʿĪsā, who was the real ruler in Baghdad at the time of the caliph al-Muqtadir , stood up for him and made sure that he was released from custody. After that, al-Balchī lived in Baghdad for a while and took part in public disputes.

Teaching activity in Nasaf

At times al-Balchī was also active in Nasaf . He came to the city when Abū ʿUthmān Saʿīd ibn Ibrāhīm was the mayor ( raʾīs ) there, settled in the Ribāt of al-Jaubaq and received a teaching position ( maǧlis al-imlāʾ ). In general, many honors were given to him there. The hadith scholar Abū Yaʿlā ʿAbd al-Mu'min ibn Chalaf (d. 957), who himself belonged to the zāhiritic doctrine, thought he was a kāfir and refused to greet him. A work in which al-Balchī criticized the scholars of hadith in particular caused offense.

His students and his end

Abū l-Qāsim had numerous disciples. Among them were Abū t-Taiyib Ibrāhīm b. Muhammad Ibn Shihāb (d. 962), Abū l-Hasan al-Ahdab and ʿAlī ibn Muhammad al-Haschā'ī al-Balchī. According to Ibn Abī l-Hadīd , the Imamitic scholar Abū Jaʿfar Ibn Qiba ar-Rāzī was also a student of al-Balchī. When al-Haschā'ī passed by in Baghdad on his way to the Hajj , he was enthusiastically welcomed and admired as the "Adlatus of al-Kaībī" ( ġulām al-Kaʿbī ) and asked about the health of his master. Adh-Dhahabī reports that during his stay in Baghdad he was venerated by the Kalām scholars there like a "called prophet" ( nabī mursal ) with his own revelation.

Al-Balchī died on 1st Sha'bān 319 (= 19 August 931) in Balch.

Works

Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī was a very fruitful writer. A total of 46 works by him are mentioned by title. Most of these works have not survived on their own, but several of them have come down to us as fragments in texts by other Arab authors. The following of his works have so far received the most attention in science:

• Qabūl al-aḫbār wa-maʿrifat ar-riǧāl , a deep and stinging critique of hadith scholarship. The book was edited in two volumes by Abū ʿAmr al-Ḥusainī in Beirut in 2000.
• Ǧāmiʿ ʿilm al-Qurʾān , great commentary on the Koran in twelve volumes. Quotations from it are preserved in the Amālī of al-Sharīf al-Murtadā . In addition, the Twelve Shiite scholar Ibn Tāwūs (d. 1266) in his work Saʿd as-suʿūd fī n-nufūs devoted a separate chapter to this commentary on the Koran and cited many of his statements there. The fragments have been edited by ḪaḪir Muḥammad Nabha in Tafsīr Abī l-Qāsim al-Kaʿbī al-Balḫī (Beirut 2007). In this work, Al-Balchī took the view that the Koran was compiled under his supervision not after Muhammad's death, but during his lifetime. In this work he also rejected the traditional conception of God's original contract with man, which was linked to Sura 7 : 172-173. According to this concept, God took all of humanity in the form of pre-existing beings from Adam's back and made them testify that God was their Lord. Al-Balchī said that this would not be biologically possible and that the Koranic word did not allow such an interpretation either. He considered this interpretation to be an invention of the traditional scholars and countered it with the interpretation that God let people testify to his rule in every new generation.
• Maqālāt firaq ahl al-qibla , doxographic work on the different faiths of Islam, which al-Balchī began in 892 and in which he used material from his teacher al-Chaiyāt and from al-Jāhiz . The work was used extensively by Muʿtazilite authors and had a particularly strong impact on the Zaidites and Ibadis in southern Arabia. Here, in Yemen, Fu'ād Saiyid also discovered a Maqālāt manuscript . It is based on a version of the work that al-Balchī completed in 903. The part of the work dealing with the Muʿtazila was edited in 1974 by Fu'ād Saiyid himself in Tunis. The other parts are only known from quotations from later authors such as Ibn an-Nadīm and ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad . There is little hope of an early edition of the rest of the manuscript, which has been severely damaged by worm damage, because it has not been accessible for a long time. The commentary on the work written by ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad has also not survived.
• ʿUyūn al-masāʾil ("The Main Problems"), systematic work in nine volumes in which al-Balchī systematically presented his teaching and distinguished it from the teaching of Abū l-Hudhail . Fragments of it have only survived in the Kitāb al-Ḫilāf baina l-Baṣrīyīn wa-l-Baġdādīyīn by Abū Raschīd an-Naisābūrī (d. 1068), which was dedicated to his refutation.
• Awāʾil al-adilla fī uṣūl ad-dīn , systematic presentation of the Islamic doctrine according to Muʿtazilite principles, which has been refuted by several Sunni theologians, including Abū l-Hasan al-Aschʿarī and al-Māturīdī . The work also contained refutations of Jewish and Christian beliefs. The only parts of the work that have survived are seven fragments from al-Balchī's argument against the Christians. They have been preserved in a refutation by the Jacobite Christian Ibn Zurʿa (943-1008). However, many of the arguments used by al-Balchī are already known from earlier anti-Christian writings. The most important points of attack are the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the sonship of Jesus Christ. The latter is rejected with reference to John 20:17: If Jesus were the Son of God, then his disciples would also have to be sons of God.
• an-Nihāya fi l-aṣlaḥ ʿalā Abī ʿAlī , refutation of Abū ʿAlī al -Jubbā'ī's teaching positions on the question of the optimum ( al-aṣlaḥ ). Quotations from it can be found in the muġnī of ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad . While, according to al-Jubbā'ī, God is not obliged to do what is best in every respect, al-Balchī, like an-Nazzām before him , meant that God must always do the best. In theory, he could deviate from it, but in this case all established categories would be dissolved. Admittedly, this behavior would not contradict reason, but in this case all the evidence on which the ratio is based would be inverted into its opposite, i.e. H. the order of the universe would be completely changed. Al-Jubbā'īs disciple as-Saimarī wrote a refutation to this writing.
• Naqḍ Kitāb Abī ʿAlī al-Ǧubbāʾī fī l-irāda . In this work al-Balchī rejected the teaching of Abū alAlī al-Jubbā'ī about the divine will and formulated his own doctrine, according to which the name of God "the one who wills" ( al-murīd ) is only to be understood metaphorically.
• an-Naqḍ ʿalā r-Rāzī fī l-ʿilm al-ilāhī , refutation of the second chapter of ar-Rāzī's theological work al-ʿIlm al-ilāhī al-kabīr . Ar-Rāzī wrote a reply to this.
• al-Mustarsid fī l-imāma , a treatise on the Imamat , in which he refuted the Kitāb al-Inṣāf fī l-imāma of the imamite scholar Ibn Qiba ar-Rāzī, which the theologian Abū l-Husain al-Susandjardī gave him on a trip brought from Rey . In his work, Ibn Qiba, in the manner of the people of Qum, had represented the doctrine of the Twelfth Imam's concealment . On the way back, As-Susandjardī brought al-Balchī's refutation to Ibn Qiba in Raiy, who then wrote a replica entitled al-Mustaṯbit fī l-imāma , which took al-Susandjardī in turn on another journey to al-Balchī in Balch. The answer from al-Balchī, entitled Naqḍ al-mustaṯbit , which al-Susandjardī brought back to Raiy, no longer reached its addressee because Ibn Qiba had died in the meantime.
• Refutation of the writing as-Sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa by Harb ibn Ismāʿīl as-Sīrdschānī (d. 893), a disciple of Ahmad ibn Hanbal .
• Ḥuǧǧat aḫbār al-āḥād , proof of the validity of the hadiths , which were based only on individual sources, against his teacher al-Chaiyāt.
• Kitāb Mahasin Ḫurāsān , book about the beauty of Khorasan . This was used by Ibn an-Nadīm for the biography of Ibn ar-Rāwandīs .

Teaching

In general, Abū l-Qāsim's views agreed with those of the Muʿtazilites of Baghdad, but in his systematics he went beyond the older approaches of an-Nazzām and al-Chaiyāt. One teaching point that linked him to the Murji'a was the view that as a Muslim everyone should be considered who believes in God and the prophet Mohammed , but the fulfillment of the cultic duties is irrelevant.

Substance theory and cosmology

In contrast to the teaching of the Basrian Muʿtazilites that all substances are alike, al-Balchī taught that atoms and individual substances can be similar and different. In his view, the differences and similarities of the various bodies result from the differences in their individual particles, while the Basric Muʿtazilites only attributed this to different combinations of atoms. His doctrine of the diversity of atoms shows similarities to the doctrine of the Sautrantika .

Regarding the much discussed question of whether the properties of an individual substance result from its external existence or whether the substance is a substance before its existence, he took the view that the non-existent ( al-maʿdūm ) is a thing ( šaiʾ ) but not a substance or an accident. A vacuum holding al-Balchi unlike the Basrensern impossible, just as he ruled out the existence of two bodies in the same place. In his opinion, however, only composite bodies have spatial expansion, not individual atoms.

Al-Balchī regarded the atom as spaceless in itself. Nevertheless, the spatial is composed of atoms. The smallest body consists of four atoms, three of which form a triangle and the fourth lies above it. The properties of the body are only derived from the aggregation of the atoms, which in this respect are not existential but accidental. According to his teaching, the accidents are not permanent, but only exist for a moment. Colors, heat or dryness therefore have no permanent quality. The atom and the body persist in their existence through the accident of existence ( baqā ). As soon as God stops giving him the accident of duration, the atom is destroyed.

Against the Basrens, al-Balchī emphasized the relativity of direction. An atom can only be said to be moving in a certain direction if it can be measured against another atom. Al-Balchī taught that the earth was round and immovable. He explained her immobility by saying that she was in the center of the cosmos . He rejected the idea of ​​the initial eternity of the world on the grounds that it was impossible to create the world outside of time.

Attributes and names of God

Among the divine attributes, al-Balchī distinguished between attributes of essence ( ṣifāt aḏ-ḏāt ) and attributes of action ( ṣifāt al-fiʿl ). To the attributes of the deed he counted all attributes that can differ according to situation ( ḥāl ) and reference person ( šaḫṣ ) such as mercy ( raḥma ), maintenance ( rizq ) and speech ( kalām ). Those attributes for which this could not be assumed, such as knowledge ( ʿilm ), life ( ḥayāt ) and power ( qudra ), he assigned to the attributes of essence. Another distinguishing criterion was the question of whether one could say of the attributes in question that God has power over them. Those to whom this was true, such as compassion and speech, he saw as attributes of action, the others as attributes of essence.

In general, al-Balchī tried to reduce the multitude of God's names to a few basic ones. So he taught that the terms "hearing" ( samīʿ ) and "seeing" ( baṣīr ) only meant that God knew things that were audible and visible. In reality, he followed an-Nazzam's view , God sees nothing. In this he stood in contrast to the teaching of the Basrian Muʿtazilites, who believed that God really hears speech and noise in the sense of sensory perception.

In contrast to Abū ʿAlī al-Jubbā'ī , who believed that God could be described as "wanting" ( murīd ) based on the will activities that arose in time , al-Balchī God completely denied the attribute of will ( irāda ): a Will is not one of the essential attributes of God, nor is there a will of God that arose in time. If you call God "willing", it is only because he has the knowledge and ability to act and is not forced to act. And when one says that he is "one who wills his actions" ( murīd li-afʿāli-hī ), it is meant by that that he produces them according to his knowledge. But when one says that he is " someone who wills the actions of men" ( murīd li-afʿāl ʿibādi-hī ), one means that he commands them and takes pleasure in them. Al-Balchī had adopted this idea from an-Nazzām . He added the psychological explanation that a volitional act presupposes hesitation and decision, which are characteristic features of man, a deficient being, whereas with God such impulses do not exist and a will is therefore superfluous.

Regarding God's omnipotence, al-Balchī taught that it did not include all acts of man because these included acts of disobedience and sin. It is impossible for God's omnipotence to refer to these acts too.

Imamate and political views

Al-Balchī's teaching on the Imamate is known through tradition in six theological treatises of different orientations. Racha el-Omari, who examined these sources, came to the conclusion that he shared the views of the Muʿtazilite school of Baghdad in this regard, which largely coincided with the Zaidi teaching. So he adhered to the Zaiditisch-Butritischen teaching of the "Imamat of the surpassed" ( imāmat al-mafḍūl ), which states that one could take the oath of allegiance to a certain person even if there was a person who was better than him. With regard to the assessment of early Islamic history, this meant the recognition of the caliphate of Abū Bakr , ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb and ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān despite the assumed superiority of ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib . Like his teacher al-Chaiyāt, al-Balchī assumed that the "Imamate of the surpassed" had been appointed by God for reasons of usefulness. Like al-Chaiyāt, he also taught that reason dictates that man know the Imam. Sunni sources also report that al-Balchī reaffirmed the Quraysh's right to the Imamat but, in the face of an impending civil war, considered it permissible to recognize a non-Quraishite ruler.

When Abū Zaid al-Balchī was drafting his "Book of Government" ( Kitāb as-Siyāsa ) for Yānis al-Khādim, the governor of Balch at the time , Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī is said to have stated that God governed the rules of governance in summarized in a single word of the Koran, namely: "O you who believe! When you meet a group, then remain firm! Remember God abundantly! Perhaps you will be well! Obey God and his Messenger! Do not get into conflict with one another, otherwise you will despair and your courage will fail! Be patient, for God is with the patient! " ( Sura 8 : 45f on H. Bobzin ).

literature

Arabic sources

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Secondary literature

• Adil Bebek: Art. "Kâ'bî" in Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm ansiklopedisi Vol. XXIV, p. 27. PDF
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• Racha el-Omari: The Theology of Abū l-Qāsim al-Balkhī / al-Kaʿbī (d. 319/931) . Brill, Leiden / Boston, 2016.
• Josef van Ess : Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī" in Encyclopædia Iranica Vol. I, pp. 359–362. First published in 1983, updated online version
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• Max Horten : The philosophical systems of the speculative theologians in Islam. Friedrich Cohen, Bonn, 1912 pp. 381-400. Digitized
• Hossein Modarressi: Crisis and Consolidation in the formative period of Shiʿite Islam. Abū Jaʿfar ibn Qiba al-Rāzī and his contribution to Imāmite Shīʿite thought. Darwin Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1993. pp. 117-120.
• Albert N. Nader: Art. "Al-Bal kh ī, Abu'l-Ḳāsim" in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Vol. I, pp. 1002b-1003a.
• Ulrich Rudolph: Al-Māturīdī and Sunni theology in Samarkand Brill, Leiden, 1997. pp. 173–175.
• Fuʾād Saiyid: "Tarǧamat Abī l-Qāsim al-Balḫī" in Faḍl al-iʿtizāl wa-ṭabaqāt al-Muʿtazila . Tunis 1974. pp. 43-56. Digitized
• Fuat Sezgin: History of Arabic Literature . Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill 1967. pp. 622f.
• David Thomas: "Abū l-Qāsim al-Balkhī" in David Thomas, Alexander Mallett, Barbara Roggema: Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 2 (900-1050) . Brill, Leiden, 2010. pp. 188-191.
• William Montgomery Watt , Michael Marmura: The Islam II. Political developments and theological concepts. Stuttgart u. a. 1985. pp. 300-302.
• Abbas Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" in Dāʾirat-i maʿārif-i buzurg-i islāmī. Markaz-i Dāʾirat al-Maʿārif-i Buzurg-i Islāmī, Tehran, 1988ff. Vol. VI, pp. 151b-156. Digitized - Engl. Transl. By Maryam Rezaee, Farzin Negahban in Encyclopaedia Islamica. Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary. Brill, Leiden, 2008. Online

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Cf. el-Omari: "Abu l-Qāsim al-Balkhı̄ al-Ka'bi's doctrine of the Imāma". 2007, p. 40.
2. ↑ See Rudolph: Al-Māturīdī . 1997, pp. 173f.
3. ↑ So as-Samʿānī: al-Ansāb . 1981, Vol. X, p. 445 and al-Baġdādī: Al-Farq baina l-firaq . P. 159.
4. ↑ Cf. Ibn Ḥaǧar al-ʿAsqalānī: Lisān al-mīzān . Vol. IV, p. 429.
5. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 328.
6. ↑ Cf. as-Samʿānī: al-Ansāb . 1981, Vol. X, p. 444.
7. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 155b.
8. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 329.
9. ↑ Cf. Yāqūt: Muʿǧam al-udabāʾ . Vol. IV, p. 1492.
10. ↑ Cf. Fück: "New materials for the Fihrist". 1934, p. 304.
11. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 154b.
12. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 329.
13. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 382.
14. ↑ Cf. ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār: Faḍl al-iʿtizāl . 1974, pp. 290, 295f.
15. ↑ Cf. al-Ḫaṭīb al-Baġdādī: Tārīḫ Baġdād . 2001. Vol. XI, pp. 25f.
16. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, pp. 332f.
17. ↑ Cf. al-Ḥākim al-Ǧušamī: "Ǧalāʾ al-abṣār" in Wilferd Madelung: Arabic Texts concerning the History of the Zaydī Imāms of Ṭabaristān, Daylamān and Gīlān . Franz Steiner, Beirut, 1987. p. 122 and van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, p. 359.
18. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 151b.
19. ↑ Cf. Rosalind Ward Gwynne: The tafsīr of Abū 'Alī al-Jubbā'ī first steps toward a reconstruction . Dissertation, University of Washington, 1987. p. 11.
20. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 154a.
21. ↑ Cf. aṣ-Ṣafadī: al-Wāfī bi-l-wafāyāt. 1982, vol. XXVII, p. 26, line 6.
22. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 152a.
23. ↑ Cf. Ibn Ḥaǧar al-ʿAsqalānī: Lisān al-mīzān . Vol. IV, p. 430 and Fück: "New materials for the Fihrist". 1934, p. 304.
24. ↑ Cf. Yāqūt: Muʿǧam al-udabāʾ . Vol. IV, p. 1491.
25. ↑ Cf. as-Samʿānī: al-Ansāb . 1981, Vol. X, p. 444.
26. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 152a.
27. ↑ Cf. Ibn Ḥaǧar al-ʿAsqalānī: Lisān al-mīzān . Vol. IV, p. 429.
28. ↑ See Modarressi: Crisis and Consolidation . 1993, p. 119.
29. ↑ Cf. Yāqūt: Muʿǧam al-udabāʾ . Vol. IV, p. 1491.
30. ↑ Cf. Fück: "New materials for the Fihrist". 1934, p. 305.
31. ↑ Cf. Saiyid: "Tarǧamat Abī l-Qāsim al-Balḫī". 1974, pp. 46-55.
32. ↑ Digitized Volume I Digitized Volume II
33. ↑ See van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, p. 359b.
34. ↑ Cf. Ibn Ṭāwūs: Saʿd as-suʿūd. 2001, pp. 314-337.
35. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, pp. 154b-155a.
36. ↑ Cf. Ibn Ṭāwūs: Saʿd as-suʿūd li-n-nufūs . P. 326.
37. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 332.
38. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 335.
39. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, pp. 363-367.
40. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 332.
41. ↑ Cf. Fuʾād Saiyid: Faḍl al-iʿtizāl wa-ṭabaqāt al-Muʿtazila . Tunis 1974. pp. 61-119. Digitized
42. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, pp. 351-356.
43. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 339.
44. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 344.
45. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, pp. 330f.
46. ↑ Cf. Arthur Biram: The atomistic substance theory from the book of the issues between Basrensern and Baghdadensern . Itzkowski, Berlin, 1902.
47. ↑ Cf. Thomas: "Abū l-Qāsim al-Balkhī". 2010, pp. 189-191.
48. ↑ See van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, p. 360.
49. ↑ See van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, p. 362a.
50. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 155.
51. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 156a.
52. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 155a.
53. ↑ Cf. van Ess: The One and the Other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 329.
54. ↑ See Modarressi: Crisis and Consolidation . 1993, pp. 118f.
55. ↑ Cf. Yāqūt ar-Rūmī : Muʿǧam al-Buldān Ed. F. Desert field. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1866-1870. Vol. III, pp. 213f. Digitization and van Ess: One and the other . 2011, Vol. I, p. 332.
56. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 384.
57. ↑ See Rudolph: Al-Māturīdī . 1997, p. 174.
58. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 400.
59. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 389.
60. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, pp. 152b-153a.
61. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 394.
62. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 396.
63. ↑ See van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, p. 361b.
64. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 395.
65. ↑ Cf. Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 394.
66. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 153b.
67. ↑ Cf. al-Māturīdī: Kitāb al-Tauḥīd . 1986, p. 49f.
68. ↑ See van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, p. 362a.
69. ↑ Cf. al-Baġdādī: Al-Farq baina l-firaq . S. 159 and hoarding: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 391.
70. ↑ Cf. aḏ-Ḏahabī: Tāʾrīḫ al-islām. 311-320h. P. 584.
71. ↑ Cf. aṣ-Ṣafadī: al-Wāfī bi-l-wafāyāt. 1982, Vol. XXVII, p. 27 and Horten: The philosophical systems . 1912, p. 390.
72. ↑ See van Ess: Art. "Abu'l-Qāsem al-Balḵī al-Kaʿbī". 1983, Vol. I, pp. 361b-362a.
73. ↑ Cf. Zaryāb: "Abū al-Qāsim al-Balḫī" Vol. VI, p. 154a.
74. ↑ Cf. el-Omari: "Abu l-Qāsim al-Balkhı̄ al-Ka'bi's doctrine of the Imāma". 2007, p. 45f.
75. ↑ Cf. el-Omari: "Abu l-Qāsim al-Balkhı̄ al-Ka'bi's doctrine of the Imāma". 2007, p. 55f.
76. ↑ Cf. Yāqūt: Muʿǧam al-udabāʾ . Vol. IV, p. 1492.