Calleva Atrebatum

Schematic plan of the city

Calleva Atrebatum was a Roman city in the province of Britain in what is now England . Calleva Atrebatum is of particular archaeological importance as it has never been populated again since ancient times. The closest place today is the village of Silchester . In the years from 1890 to 1909, large parts of the ancient city were excavated. There have been numerous subsequent excavations to date. It is the best excavated, and therefore best known, Roman city in England, and one of the most fully excavated Roman cities anywhere.

geography

The remnants of the town are in northern Hampshire , halfway between the modern towns of Reading and Basingstoke . In antiquity, trade routes that came from the north and led to the south coast of England crossed here. There were no major rivers in the vicinity of the city, but a stream had its source within the city area. Pollen analyzes have shown that the landscape in Roman times was characterized by heather, farmland, as well as wetlands and marshes in the southeast. There were also some trees here, such as oaks and birches. Calleva Atrebatum stands on a small headland, especially in the north, east and south the land falls outside the city walls.

Research history

The ruins of the city were never built over and the city wall in particular is still a few meters high in places and was always visible. There were legends about the ruins early on. In 1732, Horsley's posthumously published work Britannia Romana suggested identifying these ruins with Calleva Atrebatum. This equation slowly established itself in the following years, even if other places were repeatedly considered as the ancient Calleva Atrebatum. It was not until 1907 that an inscription was found in the city that names Calleva and this identification was secured.

The first excavations took place since 1833. Since 1890 there have been systematic excavations with the aim of uncovering the entire city. By 1907, the urban area within the walls was examined. The excavations were financed by donations and by the Society of Antiquaries . The excavations mainly focused on the stone buildings. Metal finds and plant remains were observed and collected for the first time in England. From today's perspective, however, these excavations are rather inadequate. Remnants of wooden structures were overlooked and no stratigraphic records were made. The location of many small finds was not noted. Little attention was paid to ceramics. There were further excavations in the period that followed and are still ongoing today. Above all, they try to clarify the pre-Roman settlement and individual questions.

The insulae were numbered by the excavators, with the lowest numbers in the city center, the higher ones on the outskirts.

Celtic city

A few finds indicate that people have lived on the site of the later city since the Neolithic and Bronze Age. Permanent settlement can be expected since the fourth century BC. Calleva Atrebatum later became the capital of the Celtic tribe of the Atrebates and was perhaps one of the largest Celtic settlements in Britain. Mainly defensive walls from this period have been preserved. Remains of residential buildings and small finds show that the urban area was already densely populated back then. A Celtic king with the name Eppillus minted coins in the city, in any case these bear the inscription CALLE or CALLEV. Clay models for these coins were found in and around the city.

The Roman city

Remains of the south gate

Remains of the old city wall

In 43 AD, large parts of England were conquered by the Romans. The Celtic city continued to flourish, but was likely destroyed in the Boudicca uprising . In the years that followed, parts of the new province were placed under the rule of vassal kings. One of them was Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus , who was king of the Atrebates. It probably had its capital in Noviomagus Regnorum , but it seems likely that Calleva Atrebatum also played a special role under this ruler, as it was later to become the capital of the Atrebates. Roman soldiers were probably stationed in the city for a short time during this period.

The exact process of the conversion from a Celtic to a Roman city is still unclear, but may have taken place in the years of construction after the Boudicca uprising. At the site of the later forum there were remains of a previous wooden building. Bricks bearing the name of the emperor Nero indicate a larger, probably public building from this period. In addition, numerous buildings show a different orientation than the later buildings, which adapt to the Roman city map. This indicates a different city map and street orientation at this stage.

At one point the city received a completely new road network. It is still a matter of debate when she received this plan with streets crossing at right angles. The time around AD 100 seems the most likely. The insulae now in place were 400 by 400 or 275 by 400 Roman feet.

The place is only mentioned in two ancient works. Claudius Ptolemy in his Geographike Hyphegesis describes the place as the capital of the Atrebates and provides the coordinates 19 * 00 54 ° 15. The place is mentioned four times in the Itinerarium Antonini . Accordingly, the city was on the way from Noviomagus Regnorum ( Chichester ) to Londinium , on the way from Venta Belgarum ( Winchester ) to Ad Pontes ( Staines , Surrey), which in turn was on the way to Londinium. One last route led from Isca Dumnoniorum ( Exeter ) to Calleva and ended here.

Public buildings

Forum

Bronze eagle from the forum

In the center there was a forum with a basilica. Several construction phases could be distinguished. The first structure was erected around 85 AD and was made of wood, the second structure dates from around 150 AD. However, it seems certain that the first forum was built before the rectangular road network was laid out. The appearance and dimensions of the first forum have not yet been fully clarified, but there were two construction phases. Above all, the forum received a basilica in the second phase of construction, which is dated around 85 AD . The second century forum and basilica together took up about 0.8 hectares. The forum had a large courtyard (about 43 × 40 m), which was framed on all sides by porticoes. Behind it were shops and offices. Especially in the south there were two rooms with apses that were certainly offices. There were also porticoes on all sides on the outside of the building. The main entrance was to the west and bore a large dedicatory inscription. Opposite, to the west, was the basilica, which was 82 m long and 17.5 m wide. In it was a row of Corinthian columns, which were once about 8.6 m high. There were apses on each of the short sides. In the west there were more offices, in the middle of which there was a third vestibule. From the middle of the third century, there were blacksmiths in the basilica, which suggests that from that time the building was no longer used as a public construction.

Some parts of the forum equipment have been found. Parts of the basilica walls were decorated with local limestone and marble. There were remains of wall paintings. The remains of two stone tables were found, one of them made of marble. There are fragments of a dozen inscriptions, but most of them are so small that one can hardly make any statements about their content. There are fragments of four statues that stood in the basilica. A figure of Tutela , a Gallic goddess, was made of stone and dated to the end of the second or the beginning of the third century. There were mainly two large fragments of the head and fragments of the robe. The figure was larger than life. Of a larger than life statue, perhaps of an imperial figure, only one foot with a sandal was found. Fragments of a larger than life bronze statue may also belong to the figure of an emperor. The best preserved sculpture, however, shows an eagle in bronze and is almost completely preserved. The eagle was likely part of a statue

Inn

In the south of the city there was a large inn ( Mansio ). It is the largest building in the city after the forum, and it was probably built at the same time as the road network. The complex occupies parts of two insulae. The main entrance was in the north, with exactly one of the north-south streets of the city meeting the entrance. The facility consisted of three wings, which were grouped around a large courtyard (45 × 35 m). There were various rooms in each of these wings, with heated rooms only in the west wing. The building has been redesigned several times. In the southeast there was another large courtyard and bath house. There were also latrines here , but apparently they were built later. The function of the building as a mansio is not guaranteed, but the size of the building speaks for it.

Thermal baths

The thermal baths were located in the southeast of the city . They are among the earliest stone buildings in the city, possibly built around 50 AD. The building is not aligned with the later city map and the entrance area was rebuilt at a certain point in time to fit into the new street network. Several construction phases could be distinguished. At first they consisted of a portico, a palaestra and the bathrooms behind. The portico was later removed and the bathing area was divided into two halves, certainly so that men and women could bathe separately.

temple

Mosaic from the building interpreted as a church

To the southeast of the forum stood a small building that was about 13 × 9 m in size. It was excavated in 1892 and then again in 1961. The interior had a hall with an apse and two naves and is oriented east-west. Only the foundation walls could be exposed, perhaps the interior had two rows of columns. In the apse there was a geometric mosaic, which was surrounded by a simpler floor made of small red stones. The interior was painted and showed imitation marble. The building resembles a Christian church in plan , but this assignment is not certain. There was no clear evidence of Christianity in this building. The pottery found under the building shows that it could not have been built before AD 200. Little evidence of Christians was found in the city. A ring shows the rough picture of a Venus; later an inscription was added: SENICAE VIVAS IIN DE (O) - May you refresh yourself in God, Senicicanus . There are various small objects that carry a Chi-Rho symbol, but a Christian interpretation is not mandatory, even these objects may originally come from other places and say nothing about the faith in the city.

In addition, a temple district and several other temples in the city were excavated. None of the temples were of the classical ancient type; rather, they were Gallo-Roman temples .

A temple complex stood in the far east of the city, directly south of the city gate, in Insula XXX. There were two temple stamps here, the orientation of which followed the first city map. The northern temple was slightly larger with a cella measuring 22.25 meters square and an outer portico 4.1 meters wide. The outside of the building was stuccoed and painted red. The southern temple was 15.25 m square with a cella measuring 5.5 m. The outer walls were again designed in red. Remnants of marble were found, but otherwise hardly any relevant objects. In the north of the temple area there was a small apse building, which may also have been a temple. A little south of it was a large hall (21 × 13 m) whose function is unknown. A medieval church within the temple area is aligned like the two temples and is perhaps on the remains of another temple building.

A temple was in Insula XXXVI, in the far west of the city. It was approx. 6 × 6 m in size and only the foundation walls, which were square in the plan, remained. The temple was located within a temple enclosure that measured about 30 × 35 m. There were two shafts within the temple area that were filled in the fourth century. They contained pottery, bones and coins.

In Insula XXXV, a little southeast of the forum, there was another temple, which was much smaller than the two buildings described. Mars may have been worshiped here, as the fragments of statues suggest. Here there were also inscriptions that were consecrated by guilds.

Mithras may have had a temple in Insula XIX, to the west of the city. The local building was 9 × 6.5 m in size and had two rooms, of which the western one had a niche on the short side. This is reminiscent of other Mithrans in the plan, but this is in fact the only indication of its function as a sanctuary.

In Insula VII there was a polygonal temple with sixteen sides, so it was almost round. The cella was 10.9 m in diameter. The portico was 2.9 m wide. The building was surrounded by a wall in the north, east and south. The deity worshiped here remains unknown.

city ​​wall

Remains of the city wall

There was a city wall, but it was probably not started until the late second century. It was initially a rampart with only gates made of stone. In front of the wall there were two trenches from which the sand for the wall was taken. It was only built entirely in stone at the end of the third century. Overall, the wall, which is still largely preserved today, is more than 2.5 km long. The wall had eight city gates, which, however, need not all have been in operation at the same time and encompassed an approximately octagonal city area with a diameter of approx. 500 m. Some urban areas, especially in the west, have not been walled. Since this part of the city has not yet been excavated, it cannot be said whether these areas were already uninhabited at that time or were not included in the walled city area for other reasons.

amphitheater

The remains of the amphitheater

Outside the city there was an amphitheater made of earth , in which three construction phases could be distinguished. Most of the extensions were made of wood in the first and stone in the second. The first phase of construction dates back to the first century AD. The arena at that time was round with a diameter of about 43 m. In the middle of the second century AD, the facility was rebuilt and the arena was given an oval shape (44 × 38 m). At the beginning of the third century, the facility was expanded and parts were built in stone (49 × 40 m). The spectator stands are around 15 m wide and around 5.5 m high. The wall in the arena was once about 3 m high. There were two entrances, which are also set in stone. There are two niches in the arena whose function is unknown. They may have included altars for the nemesis (god of fate), or they may be places of refuge for those involved in the games., The theater had space for around 4,500 to 9,000 spectators.

There were also some suburbs that have not yet been excavated. So far, excavations in the cemeteries are missing.

Most of the city's buildings and dwellings were built in stone, but there are plenty of open spaces between them, on which in antiquity there were probably wooden structures that the early excavations did not fully recognize. More recent, up-to-date excavations have produced various evidence of such wooden houses.

Residential buildings

Mosaic from Silchester

The oldest stone houses date from the end of the first century. There is a wide variety of different house types. Simple stone buildings only consisted of one room and perhaps had built-in or additions made of wood. Fireplaces could be observed here, which might indicate workshops. Other buildings consisted of different rooms. Most houses consist of a corridor on which the individual rooms are lined up. Larger houses often had several wings that together formed a courtyard. A house in Insula XIV had four wings arranged around an inner courtyard. Mosaics were found in around 30 houses, most of which show geometric patterns and most of them date to the third and fourth centuries. Heatable rooms are often found. Many rooms were decorated with wall paintings , but only very few of them were preserved in significant remnants. Window glass could be found again and again during the excavations.

Water supply

Since the city was on a hill, it is easy to understand why there were no aqueducts for water supply. Only in Insula XV and XVI was a wooden water pipe found, which indicates that at least some water was also brought into the city from outside. Most of the water came from wells that were found all over the city. They were on average 6 m deep. Often times the ground was firm enough that the wells did not need additional support. In some cases, however, the fountains have been clad with wood and then with flint. The water was drawn from the well with wooden buckets. A wooden pump was found in Insula XIV, of a type allegedly invented by Ktesibios .

City life

As the city's cemeteries have not yet been excavated, little is known about the city's residents, as the informative tombstones are missing. Only one tombstone is known, which was found in 1577. The text reads: In memory of Flavia Victorina; Titus Tammonius Victor, her husband, erected (this tombstone) . The special interest of this inscription lies in the name of Tammonius, because a certain T. Tammonius Vitalis left an inscription in honor of Hercules , which was found in the forum. His father was again called Saenius Tammnoius. So this family played a special role in the life of the city.

City status

Almost nothing is known about the city administration. Calleva Atrebatum was the capital of a civitas , but apparently never had the status of a municipality . The former population is difficult to estimate. It can be assumed from approx. 1200 inhabitants. However, extreme estimates vary between 600 and 7500 inhabitants.

Literacy

There is ample evidence that a large part of the city's population was able to read and write, at least in rudimentary form. There are brief inscriptions on bricks before they were burned. About 150 stili (writing pens) made of bronze, iron or bone were found, which, together with the discovery of a wooden wax tablet, prove that this form of recording was widespread for bills or short notes. There were also pens and ink pots that document writing on wooden boards, papyrus or parchment. The final verses of a verse from the Aeneid of Virgil were found on a brick, which shows that at least some classics were known and read.

Business

There was probably a tannery in Insula VI in the first century. Numerous ox jaws were found during excavations. This indicates that someone here bought headed ox skins and processed them. In an iron hoard three strips were found which indicate the presence of a shoemaker. Tin was processed in the forum because there were six models there. There is evidence of iron processing, including two iron hoards that contained numerous tools and the discovery of a furnace for iron. The iron hoards also contained numerous tools that were obviously used by carpenters. This includes a plane. Beyond the north gate were found two pottery ovens dating to the first century AD. The analysis of glass has shown that this was also processed on site. There were hardly any villas around the city, so it was assumed that agriculture played an important role. Some houses in the city have large courtyards that indicate an agricultural function.

literature

• Michael Fulford: A Guide to Silchester, The Roman Town of Calleva Atrebatum , 2002 ISBN 0-951250-91-4
• George C. Boon: Silchester: The Roman Town of Calleva , Newton Abbot, London, North Pomfret, Vancouver 1974 ISBN 0-7153-6339-5
• John Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain , Routledge, London / New York 1997, pp. 271-291 ISBN 0-415-17041-9

Individual evidence

1. ^ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain , 272
2. ↑ Boon: Silchester , 108
3. ↑ Boon: Silchester , 119-120
4. ↑ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain , pp. 277-278
5. ^ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain , p. 274
6. ^ Fulford: A Guide to Silchester , 20-21
7. ↑ ACKing: The Roman church at Silchester reconsidered , In: Oxford Journal of Archeology 2 (1983), pp. 225-237
8. ↑ Boon: Silchester , pp. 133, 183
9. ↑ Boon: Silchester , p. 183
10. ↑ Boon: Silchester , pp. 155–157
11. ↑ Boon: Silchester , pp. 152-160
12. ^ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain , 278-279
13. ^ Fulford: A Guide to Silchester , 12-13
14. ↑ Boon: Silchester , 85-87; Image of the pump and reconstruction
15. ↑ Boon: Silchester , 186
16. ^ Wacher: Towns of Roman Britain , 289
17. ↑ Boon: Silchester , 62-64

Web links

Commons : Calleva Atrebatum  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• The Queen's Revenge , Spiegel Online, August 11, 2009
• To recent excavations
• Calleva Atrebatvm (Eng.)

Coordinates: 51 ° 21 ′  N , 1 ° 5 ′  W