Londinium
Londinium, now London , was the largest city and capital of the Roman province of Britain . Due to its favorable location on the Thames , which in turn offered good connections to the sea and the hinterland, Londinium was also an important trading center.
The history of Londinium can be roughly reconstructed from a few scattered mentions by ancient authors, from the general history of Britain and from excavations in the city. At the end of the third century it was even the residence of the opposing emperor Carausius and thus the capital of a special empire in Britain. As a major Roman city , it had all of the public buildings of one, only some of which could be identified through excavations. The large forum in the center of the city, one of the largest buildings of its kind north of the Alps, testifies to the strong economic position of Londinium. This is also confirmed by the remains of numerous warehouses on the banks of the Thames.
history
In 43 AD, large parts of what is now England were conquered by the Romans. In the years after the conquest, different cities were founded, most of which were the main places of local tribes. The cities, the establishment of which often preceded the establishment of a military camp , became the starting point for the Romanization of the country. With the soldiers came traders and craftsmen who sought their fortune in the new province.
In contrast to many other Roman cities in Britain, Londinium does not seem to have had a Celtic predecessor, and the city was never the capital of a tribal area ( civitas ). In today's urban area of London there are various prehistoric settlements, but none of them can be described as a real predecessor settlement. A Roman military camp is suspected at the site of the later city, but this has not yet been proven archaeologically and therefore remains very speculative. Nevertheless, a strong Celtic influence can already be seen in the naming (Londinium is probably of Celtic origin and possibly contains the Celtic personal name Londinos ). The place name is possibly derived from the pre-Celtic ( Ur- European) word Plowonida , which roughly means "settlement on the broad river".
The location of the place was extremely favorable. Here the Thames (Latin Tamesis ) was relatively flat and could therefore be crossed without difficulty. The river offered a good connection to the sea and thus to Gaul and the Mediterranean . From Londinium one could easily reach other places in Britain by land. During the Roman invasion in 43, the site of what would later become the city was a central meeting point for the Romans.
Before the Boudicca uprising in AD 47–60.
Archaeologists now assume that Londinium emerged as a civilian settlement a few years after the invasion, starting from Cornhill in the east of today's city center. A wooden sewer pipe was discovered along the former east-west Roman main road when building No 1 Poultry . The dendrochronological examination showed that it dates from AD 47; In recent times this is often given as the most likely year the city was founded.
On both sides of the swampy Walbrooktal (the Walbrook brook flowed into the Thames here) the place was built on hills. In 2016, when a new high-rise office building was being built, wooden plaques were found in the damp mud of the former Walbrook river, which represent the oldest handwritten documents in Great Britain. Of a total of 405 tablets, 87 could be deciphered. They give an insight into everyday life in the city in the time of the first century AD. A plaque from the first decade after the conquest in 43 AD provides the oldest mention of the Roman name Londinium for the city. Most of the plaques were found in layers of rubbish that had been brought to the site to fortify the banks of the river. So far, neither a bridge nor a fort nor buildings that were usually built could be detected. This settlement reached significant proportions early on. In the place of the later forum there was a large open space that probably functioned as a market. The houses at that time were all made of wood. According to Tacitus' account , the city was famous for its many merchants and extensive trade links. Tacitus' statements were supported by numerous archaeological finds in the port area. Londinium gained its early special significance through trade with mainland Europe.
During the Boudicca uprising in AD 60, the rebels took the place, which was certainly not fortified, and burned it down completely. The Roman legate Gaius Suetonius Paulinus could not hold the city and the insurgents let the flourishing city feel their special anger. The horizon of destruction is now clearly visible archaeologically. The Bloomberg boards date from shortly before and after the uprising . There are 405 wooden writing boards, which mainly show how quickly life returned to normal after the uprising.
Second and third centuries
In the years after the uprising, the city was rebuilt. Londinium was now the capital of the Province of Britain, although the exact time of the relocation of the Provincial Administration from Camulodunum ( Colchester ) to Londinium is not certain. But the fact that the provincial administrator Gaius Iulius Alpinus Classicianus was buried here speaks for the importance of the city . To the west of Walbrook, public stone buildings were erected, such as a forum, a praetorium and thermal baths . To the southeast of the ancient city center, at today's Plantation Place , there was a small military camp that was in operation until around 85 AD. The exact function is unknown. The forum was expanded by 120. In the north-west of the city, a four-hectare fort was built, which is to be seen in connection with the officium of the governor. There was an amphitheater in the immediate vicinity . Around the year 100 work began on the expansion of the quays, which were built from huge oak beams along the banks of the Thames.
Although there were numerous stone buildings early on, most of the residential development initially consisted of wooden houses. The city had a plan with streets intersecting at right angles, admittedly with numerous irregularities that may be due to the city's unplanned early growth. There were various city fires in which parts of the city were destroyed. Probably the most devastating of these fires can be dated under Emperor Hadrian . From this time a burnt-out warehouse was excavated, full of imported, as yet unused terra sigillata . However, the exact extent of the fire is controversial in research. Public buildings in particular were not victims of the fire. Various small fires may have been recorded during excavations, which independently date from around AD 120.
In 122 the Emperor Hadrian visited Britain and probably Londinium as well, and it is believed that the construction and expansion of some public buildings were carried out at the suggestion of the Emperor. In the period that followed, the ancient city reached its greatest heyday and it can be assumed that several tens of thousands of people lived here.
From 185 to 187 the future emperor Pertinax was governor of Britain and resided in the city. Shortly after him, around 195, Clodius Albinus , who was also governor of Britain, was probably elevated to Caesar , i.e. co-emperor, in Londinium .
Between 190 and 220, a wall was built in the north, east and west of the urban area, which was extended to the Thames towards the end of the third century. The exact reasons for the construction of the London Wall remain in the dark, but this happened at a time when many other British cities were also being walled. Around 200 the British province was divided into two parts. Londinium was now the capital of Britannia superior . In the course of the third century the situation became more unsettled and the city also seems to have been the target of attacks by various barbarians. At the end of the third century (286) the city was probably the seat of government of the anti-emperor Carausius and his successor Allectus . In 296 the legitimate Emperor Constantius I , on whose coins the oldest image of the city can be found, recaptured this British Empire. The sources report that the city was threatened with pillage by the Franks , which the emperor was just able to prevent. Shortly afterwards there was another provincial division. Londinium was now the capital of the province of Maxima Caesariensis . The entire third century is poorly documented archaeologically in the city. Compared to the second century, Londinium was clearly going through a period of decline.
Fourth century
From 314 a bishop is attested for the city: Restitutus took part in the Council of Arles that year and is mentioned in the sources in this context. Administratively, the city retained its importance. In addition to the Augusta elevation , the stationing of the praepositus thesaurum Augustensium in the late 4th century should also be mentioned.
During the fourth century there were numerous attacks on Britain by Franks and Saxons. It is not known to what extent the city was affected. Flavius Theodosius , the father of the future emperor Theodosius I , crossed with his son to Britain in 368 and came to Londinium, where he wintered in order to restore order. Nevertheless, in late antiquity Britain was primarily a springboard for usurpers. In 383 there was again a counter-emperor in Britain, Magnus Maximus , whose capital may have been Londinium for a short time and who also had coins minted here. After the usurper Constantine III. 407 had left Britain with the remnants of the field army, the province was largely left to its own devices. As with virtually all British cities, there has been a slow decline in the course of the fourth century, although there appear to have been a number of sizable townhouses inhabited. The forum was abandoned at 300. The amphitheater was in operation until around 350. In the course of the fifth century the city was largely abandoned, the focus of the settlement shifted outside the walls to the west, on the other side of the River Fleet . This is also where the Anglo-Saxon Lundenwic came into being , which, according to evidence of recent excavations, was built around 500.
Legal and religious position
Despite the undoubted importance of the city, its concrete status is unclear today. It is not known whether Londinium was a colonia or a civitas . However, it is likely that it was raised to a municipium in the Flavian period . There are indications for the fourth century that the city may really have been raised to colonia status. This is indicated, among other things, by the fact that Londinium was renamed Augusta .
The function of Londinium as provincial capital is not explicitly mentioned in the ancient sources, but can be deduced from various sources. At first it was the largest Roman city in Britain. There was an inscription on Nicholas Lane which perhaps names the numina Caesaris Augusti , who are the good spirits ( Numina ) of the emperor; they indicate the existence of the imperial cult in the city. This cult was practiced mostly in the provincial capital. In the town there was also a wooden writing board bearing the stamp of the imperial procurator . The board has never been used. It seems unusual for such a board to be discarded away from his office. The corresponding office can therefore be assumed to be in Londinium. There is also the tombstone of a speculator , who is an official who has so far only been attested in the palace of a provincial governor. A centurion named Vivius Marcianus is known from his gravestone from London. He carries a role and it is believed that he was Princeps praetorii ( Praetur ). Finally there were roof tiles with the inscription: P.PR.BR.LON - the provincial procurator of Britain in Londinium. In the fourth century, however, as is recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum , the city was the seat of the Vicarius and the Praepositus thesaurorum , both of whom were high officials of the provincial administration.
The city's population was far more diverse than in any other city in Britain, which is understandable in the city's role as an administrative center. Merchants, soldiers and imperial officials had a lasting influence on life in the city. For example, a wide range of ancient cults was represented. As early as the 1st century, an Isis temple was built, which was renewed around 250. To the east of the Walbrook was a mithraeum richly decorated with sculptures from the late 2nd century until its destruction in the early 4th century . Not long ago a basilica was found on Tower Hill , which can be identified as a Christian church of the late 4th century.
Craft and trade
There is ample evidence of various craft businesses. A goldsmith seems to have worked in the place of the later praetorium in the first century. There is also evidence of iron smiths and copper processing from the time before the Boudicca uprising. The remains of glass workshops from the first and second centuries are remarkable, as they are not often found. Before the uprising there was also a pottery in the town, although the potter may have come from the Rhone Valley , where there was already a flourishing pottery industry.
Trade was particularly important for the city, especially with Gaul, Germania, Spain and Italy. Quays have been excavated on the banks of the Thames, and a relatively well-preserved ship has even been found in the river. Inscriptions show that the city's inhabitants came to Londinium from all parts of the Roman Empire. The numerous unearthed warehouses, especially on the banks of the Thames, are evidence of the special importance of trade. Ceramics, including lamps and clay figures, have been archaeologically documented as commodities. In the period after the Boudicca uprising, the simple tableware was mostly produced in the area around the city or came from various pottery near Verulamium . In the second century these came from Dorset potteries . Sophisticated tableware, especially terra sigillata, was imported from Gaul. From the third century onwards, however, these imports decreased and only local ceramics were used.
Glassware, in spite of its own production, has certainly increased as an import good especially since the second century. Valuable building materials were sometimes imported from far away, although they certainly did not play a major role in the total trade volume. Some of the food was produced locally. In Londinium itself, the remains of a factory were found that produced fish sauce ( garum ). However, certain more sophisticated foods such as olives , fish sauces from Spain, various types of fish, fruits and wine were imported. An amphora with 6,000 olives was found in the Thames. Textiles in particular appear as a British export good in ancient texts. British oysters are mentioned as a special delicacy in Roman sources . Finds show - there were many oysters in the port of Londinium - the city was one of the places from which these mussels were shipped.
art
A large city like Londinium was certainly richly adorned with works of art, examples of which have been preserved from all areas. However, the architecture has come to us so destroyed that it is hardly possible to get a real picture of it. For example, it cannot be said with certainty whether there were any Classical-style temples. The well-preserved bathroom on the banks of the Thames at Huggin Hill is architecturally rather undemanding and is designed to be purely functional. The Praetorium, on the other hand, was a representative building with large halls, a garden and various halls with apses . In the most recent excavations, a district with two Gallo-Roman temples was found in the suburb south of the Thames .
The picture is a little clearer in the area of sculptures and flat panels, whereby the latter can be divided into mosaic and painting.
Like most cities in the Roman Empire, the public squares and temples and certainly also the houses of wealthy citizens were richly decorated with statues. Examples of sculptures can also be found in the city's cemeteries. There are basically two styles. A number of works were obviously not produced on site, but in Italy or other places in the Mediterranean. They stand out for their purely classical style (see the bronze head of Hadrian), their stylistic perfection and the high standard of craftsmanship. Several such works were also found in the Mithraeum. They are mostly small, but also life-size marble sculptures. Locally made sculptures are usually much coarser and sometimes appear a little disproportionate. This was due, at least in part, to the use of local rock types. These sculptures are close to works of Gallo-Roman culture .
Over a hundred remains of mosaic floors have been found in Londinium, mostly showing geometric patterns. The few surviving figurative representations seem rather modest in terms of their quality. This is in contrast to the preserved examples of wall painting. The remains of a wall in Southwark, with their representation of three-dimensional architecture, are hardly inferior to Italian examples from the same period (see picture below). Comparable remains are also known from other parts of the city and prove how closely this art form in Londinium was committed to Italian models. Paintings found on Fenchurch Street, for example, belong to elaborate architectural paintings with aedicules . They probably date from the beginning of the second century.
Remains of Roman wall painting
Fragments of a wall painting
Fragments of a wall painting
Fragments of a wall painting; Fenchurch Street
Structure and surroundings of the city
Londinium was on the Thames, which was much wider in Roman times than it is today. The urban area stretched along the river for a length of about 1.5 kilometers and was about 600 to 1000 m wide. It was walled around the year 200. Outside the city walls, where mainly the necropolis can be found, the population was sparse. From the beginning, the center of the city was the area around the forum. In this area there were also many elaborate residential buildings and most of the mosaics were found here. Another concentration of buildings can be found on the banks of the Thames. Here, too, the remains of important public buildings, richly furnished residential buildings, numerous warehouses and quays have been found. To the north, away from the banks of the Thames, the development seems to have been looser and, especially during the period of population decline in the third and fourth centuries, these areas were vacant and used as gardens or farmland. At the end of the fourth century, when the population continued to decline, the areas on the banks of the Thames remained mainly populated.
The entire urban area of today's Greater London ( Greater London ), there are Roman remains. Larger settlements probably only existed at Enfield , Brockley Hill and Old Ford in the north and Brentford , Putney , Croydon and Grayford in the south. All these places, about which little is otherwise known, are on the arterial roads of Londinium. In contrast, villas are hardly known from the immediate vicinity of the city. It is questionable whether this is a coincidence or whether it had a special reason that is no longer apparent today.
buildings
Forum
The forum stood in the center of the city . It was one of the largest structures of its kind north of the Alps. Even before the Boudicca uprising, there was a free space here. Two phases of construction can be distinguished from the actual forum; in the second the forum was expanded considerably. The identification of the building as a forum in the first phase is controversial and it has also been suggested that the remains found were warehouses. Finally, another possibility would be that it was a macellum . The few remains show rows of rooms that could have belonged to warehouses, but also to the buildings mentioned.
The expansion in the second construction phase is often associated with the visit of Emperor Hadrian; this has not yet been proven and the thesis has also been put forward that it could also have been expanded under the Flavians (69 to 96 AD). After all, it can be observed again and again in other places in the Roman Empire that emperors donated money for the construction or expansion of public buildings during their visits. The forum consisted of a large open space with a water basin in the middle. The square was once lined with colonnades and shops. In the north there was a basilica with apses . The basilica consisted of a central nave. The whole complex was approximately 168 × 167 m. The main entrance was probably in the south. This forum was demolished around 300 and never rebuilt.
Praetorium
On the banks of the Thames (in the area of what is now Cannon Street Station ) stood a large representative building with a garden, water basin and fountain. It is perhaps the praetorium (palace of the governor) of the city, although the poorly preserved remains do not completely rule out another function, such as that of a large bath. Only parts of the building plan have been preserved. However, the building was once richly furnished, as remains of mosaics show. There was a large central hall and parts with apses. The building was erected in the second half of the first century, and various additions and alterations could be observed in the following period. The building was used until around 300.
temple
Londinium had several temples. The renovation of a temple to Jupiter is mentioned on an altar . The building of a temple of a mother goddess and a temple of the Egyptian goddess Isis is documented by inscriptions . A jug is labeled Londinium at the Temple of Isis. Finally, an altar mentions the renovation of the Temple of Isis. In addition to the building, which was perhaps the first forum, the foundations of a rectangular and approx. 10 × 20 m large temple were found. There were two rooms and a niche in the second, larger room, certainly for the cult statue. In front of the building there was a free space belonging to the temple district. It is not known which deity was worshiped here. The construction was leveled with the establishment of the large forum.
On the banks of the Thames, more in the west of the city (near Peter's Hill ), strong foundations of two unknown buildings have been found during excavations. It is believed that they belong to two classical style temples. The temples are very poorly preserved. There were extensive renovations at the end of the 3rd century. It has been assumed that these are connected with the emperors Carausius and Allectus, who eventually converted the complex into a palace complex (with temples). Finally, recent excavations in the Southwark suburbs have revealed a small temple precinct . There were two Gallo-Roman temple temples here . The deities worshiped here remain unknown for the time being. But here the inscription of Tiberinius Celerianus was found, which is dedicated to Mars Camulus and represents one of the earliest evidence for the place name London. The excavations of the temple complex attracted the general public's attention, as a cream jar was found here that still contained the ancient cream. Another Gallo-Roman temple was discovered in winter 2006/2007 in the east of the city.
However, only one mithraeum could be identified with certainty . When it was found in 1954, the building still contained numerous sculptures. The remains were moved and are therefore still preserved today. To the west of the city, outside the city walls, the remains of an octagonal building were found, which perhaps also represent the remains of a temple. It was built around 270, or maybe even as late as the fourth century.
Other public buildings
Several baths are known, although in individual cases it is not always certain whether the remains that were found belonged to public or private bathing facilities. The bath on Huggin Hill (near the banks of the Thames), built in Flavian times and almost completely excavated, was certainly a public bath. It contained one of the largest heatable rooms in Roman Britain. However, it was demolished at the end of the second century.
On Fenchurch Street, a little east of the forum, the remains of a room were found that burned down in Hadrianic times. The meaning is uncertain, but it could be a guild meeting room , although this is only one of several suggested interpretations.
A little south of the military camp, the foundations of an amphitheater were excavated. It was approximately 130 × 110 m in size and was built in the second century and abandoned in the middle of the fourth century.
South of Peter's Hill on the banks of the Thames, where the strong foundations that may have belonged to a temple were found, the rebuilt remains of a triumphal arch were also found . The former location of the arch remains unknown, but assuming that it was not far from the temple presumed here, it can be assumed that there was a religious center of the city with various public buildings.
Remains of an aqueduct have not yet been found. The city was probably supplied with fresh water by the Thames and its tributaries. Sewage pipes made of wood were found in several places in the city, carrying waste and rainwater away.
Warehouse
Between 1973 and 1983, numerous storage structures were excavated on the banks of the Thames, testifying to the city's economic importance. This is also where the company was found where the fish sauce, which is so popular for Roman dishes, was produced. Over the centuries, the shoreline shifted further and further south, thus gaining new land. Parts of the bank fortifications with the wooden landing stages were found during excavations and some of them were surprisingly well preserved. The remains of a wooden box that once stood in the water could be the foundations of the suspected Thames bridge.
Military camp
In the north of the city there was a 4.5 hectare military camp that was built at the end of the first or the beginning of the second century. It is disputed what kind of military force was stationed here, perhaps soldiers who were in contact with the governor residing in Londinium. Legions appear in texts on consecration stones from the city. But it is very doubtful that they had their camp here. Three legions are attested. They are the Legio II Augusta , the Legio XX Valeria Victrix and the Legio VI Victrix . The camp was abandoned around AD 200 when the city wall was built. The north and west walls of the camp became part of the city wall. In the period that followed, the camp site was apparently largely undeveloped.
Residential buildings
Ancient residential buildings have been found throughout the modern urban area. However, since the excavations mostly only cover small sections, only a few buildings are recognizable in their overall plan. In the first and second centuries, wooden buildings seem to have dominated, which covered the city closely, although there were also important stone houses. Noteworthy are a few round huts from the first century, undoubtedly made by native British people who settled in the city. In the third century more and more stone buildings were erected, these buildings were mostly larger and it seems that there has been a decline in craft and industry. During this time, some areas within the city walls seem to have been vacant and reserved for arable or horticultural cultivation. A particularly large residential building with bathing facilities was located on today's Lower Thames Street, near the Thames, a little southeast of the forum.
The richer houses, especially in the center of the city, had mosaics , wall paintings , hypocausts and baths. They prove the prosperity in the city.
city wall
The stone city wall , which was about 3.2 km long to the surrounding area, was built like most city walls in Britain at the end of the second century. A coin from Commodus was found below the wall , so that his reign represents the earliest possible time of the investment ( terminus post quem ). There were at least six gates, and another, if not more, can be expected to face the Thames where there was a bridge over the river. So far, the bridge can only be identified from the concentration of finds in this area and the location of the suburb on the other side of the Thames. No definite remains have been found so far. The city wall included the military camp, but also the amphitheater, which was usually not the case in most other British cities. The course of the city wall is generally secured, only on the west side, south of Ludgate Hill, has it not yet been archaeologically proven. How the bank of the Thames was secured has not been clearly established. A series of towers was initially assumed. However, recent excavations on the banks of the Thames have uncovered massive walls, which is why there are some indications that the bank was secured by means of a wall. The problem is that the sea wall was probably only built around 270 AD, much later than the land wall.
Suburbs
On the south side of the Thames (now Southwark ) there was a large suburb that was connected to the city proper by a bridge. The terrain here was flat and was often flooded, so that it was only possible to settle on a number of small hills. The development seems to have been typical of a suburb and developed mainly along the arteries. However, important stone buildings with partly rich interiors could also be excavated on them. The Temple of Isis was probably also located here. An inscription found on site lists legionaries by name. It remains unclear what the purpose of this inscription is and why it was found here. After all, this inscription could be connected to a mansio that is suspected here . A temple area with two temple buildings was found.
About a kilometer east of the Roman city, in what is now Shadwell, was another, apparently substantial, suburban settlement. Here was a large bathroom and another stone building of unknown function, next to it were the remains of grave structures. The buildings date to the 3rd century. It has been assumed that this was the actual port of Lonodinium after the port in the city had lost its importance in the 3rd century. However, there is no concrete evidence to support this assumption.
Necropolis
Outside the city walls there were extensive necropolises with some monumental grave structures. The tomb of Gaius Iulius Alpinus Classicianus belongs to a historically tangible person. Various inscriptions on tombstones attest to the cosmopolitan character of the population. Alfidus Olussa, for example, came from Athens , L. Pomeius Da […] from Arretium in Italy. His tomb was adorned with a marble inscription. Urn burials were the rule, and it was not until the third century that burials became more common. The oldest graves were found within the later city wall, near the forum. In the area of West Tenter Street, east of the city walls, a large section of the cemetery has been excavated. 672 body graves and 134 cremations were found. They date from the end of the first to the fifth century. Wooden coffins were found and one grave contained bronze brooches inlaid with silver, which are typical of senior military officials.
Excavations
Due to the intensive development of the modern city, the archaeological research of Londinium is difficult. Many ancient buildings were already demolished in the Middle Ages, but the thick medieval layers also preserved Roman remains from modern destruction. The Roman city is located in the center of what is now London, exactly where the largest buildings with the deepest cellars are. The foundations of large houses have been very deep since Victorian times and destroy many old remains in the process, although the damage that has occurred in recent years has proven to be less dramatic than feared. The Victorian walls often only form foundations on the outside of the building, leaving the space in between undisturbed.
Since the Renaissance, attention has been paid to ancient objects that came to light during construction work in the city. Especially after the Great Fire of London (1666), some mighty wall structures belonging to the forum and praetorium were observed and described by Sir Christopher Wren . Inscriptions and sculptures, as well as mosaics since the 18th century, were copied and some are still preserved today. Systematic excavations have been undertaken since the 19th century and have been particularly intense since the end of the Second World War. As a rule, only small sections of the ancient city that correspond to the modern parcels can be recorded. The image of the ancient development therefore remains uneven.
Few remnants of the ancient city can be seen in today's London. Ruins of the city wall (which in turn was used and expanded further in the Middle Ages) can be found at the Tower of London and especially near the Museum of London . Some of the walls of the amphitheater can now be seen under the Guildhall . The foundations of the Mithraeum were dismantled and moved. You are now on Queen Victoria Street. The individual finds from the excavations can mainly be seen in the Museum of London. There is also a life-size reconstruction of a living room from Roman times with mosaic and wall painting. Some outstanding objects of national importance are also exhibited in the British Museum .
See also
literature
General
- Edward Bacon: Risen Story. Archaeological finds since 1945. Updated edition. Zurich 1964, pp. 15–24.
- Richard Hingley: Londinium, A biography, Roman London from its Origins to the Fifth Century. London 2018, ISBN 978-1-350-04729-7 .
- Peter Marsden: Roman London. London 1980.
- Ralph Merrifield: London, City of the Romans. Berkeley (California) 1983, ISBN 0-520-04922-5 . (rather popular summary)
- Gustav Milne: The Port of Roman London, London 1993 (reprint), ISBN 0-7134-4365-0 . (Summary of the digs on the Thames)
- John Morris : Londinium, London in the Roman Empire. London 1999, ISBN 0-7538-0660-6 .
- Dominic Perring: Roman London (The Archeology of London). London 1991, ISBN 1-85264-039-1 . (especially archaeological summary on Roman London, rich in plans)
- John Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain. London / New York 1997, ISBN 0-415-17041-9 , pp. 88-111. (especially archaeological summary on Roman London)
- Lacey M. Wallace: The Origin of Roman London. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2014, ISBN 978-1-107-04757-0 .
- RJA Wilson: A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain. 4th edition. London 2002, ISBN 1-84119-318-6 , pp. 604-652.
Ancient authors
- Stanley Ireland: Roman Britain. A sourcebook. London 1996, ISBN 0-415-13134-0 . (Collections of all places in classical authors who mention Britain and London)
Excavation reports The excavation reports on Roman London can be found scattered in various magazines and articles, the number of which seems unmanageable. In recent years, excavation reports have been published in the MoLAS Monograph Series . The following are particularly important:
- P. Marsden: The Roman Forum Site in London. Discoveries before 1985. London 1987, ISBN 0-11-290442-4 .
- John D. Shepherd: The temple of Mithras, London. London 1998, ISBN 1-85074-628-1 .
Works of the MoLAS series:
- Bruno Barber, David Bowsher: The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 1983–90. (= MoLAS Monograph ). London 2000, ISBN 1-901992-06-3 .
- Brian Yule: A Prestigious Roman Building Complex on the Southwark Waterfront: Excavations at Winchester Palace, London, 1983-90. (= MoLAS Monograph ). London 2005, ISBN 1-901992-51-9 .
Web links
- Information about Londinium on Roman-Britain.org (English)
- Information about Londinium on Britannia.com (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ general: Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain. Pp. 17-32.
- ↑ a b c d Malcolm Todd: Londinium. In: The New Pauly . Volume 7, Col. 432-433.
- ^ Richard Coates: A New Explanation of the Name of London. In: Transactions of the Philological Society. November 1998, p. 203.
- ^ Excavation report ( memento of July 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) by English Heritage
- ↑ Maev Kennedy, Oldest handwritten documents in UK unearthed in London dig. In: The Guardian . June 1, 2016, accessed June 2, 2016.
- ^ Tacitus: Annals. XIV 33.
- ↑ cf. the card at Marsden: Roman London. P. 30.
- ↑ The remains of his tomb were found in 1885 and can be seen today in the British Museum : ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )
- ↑ Hingley: Londinium. Pp. 61-62.
- ↑ Malcolm Todd speaks in the New Pauly of a complete redesign including a newly built basilica (the largest in the northwestern provinces) around the year 100.
- ^ Richard Hingley: Londinium, a biograpghy, Roman London from its Origins to the Fifth Century. Bloomsburt Academic, London / New York 2018, ISBN 978-1-350-04729-7 , 116-120
- ^ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain. P. 74.
- ↑ Paengyris Latini VIII, V.
- ↑ Ammianus Marcellinus , XXVII, 8, 7; XXVIII, III, 1
- ^ Solidus, which was minted in Londinium
- ↑ Hingley: Londinium , 211-241
- ↑ compare the discussion: The Status of Roman London ( Memento of June 24, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Ammianus Marcellinus, XXVIII, III, 1; see. also the Notitia Dignitatum (XI)
- ^ JC, MG Jarret: The division of Britain. In: Journal of Roman Studies . 57, 1967, p. 63.
- ^ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain. Pp. 83-87.
- ^ Milne: The Port of Roman London. Pp. 87-95.
- ↑ Milne: Port of London. Pp. 103-126.
- ↑ Milne: Port of London. Pp. 91-95.
- ↑ David S. Neal, Stephen R. Cosh: Roman Mosaics of Britain. Volume III: South-East Britain, Part 2. London 2009, ISBN 978-0-85431-289-4 , pp. 393-460.
- ^ Yule: A Prestigious Roman Building. Pp. 125-30.
- ^ M. Rhodes: Wall-paintings from Fenchurch Street, City of London. In: Britannia. 18, 1987, pp. 169ff, plates 1-3.
- ^ Rare Roman murals go on display
- ^ Perring: Roman London. P. 101, fig. 45.
- ↑ See map in Morris: Londinium, London in the Roman Empire. Fig. 13, pp. 260-61.
- ^ Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain. P. 91.
- ^ Marsden: The Roman Forum Site in London.
- ^ P. Marsden: The Excavation of a Roman Palace Site in London. In: Trans. London and Middx Arch Soc. 1961-971, 26 (1975), pp. 1-102.
- ^ Roman Inscriptions of Britain , 39a infra.
- ^ Roman Inscriptions of Britain, 39b infra.
- ^ Perring: Roman London. P. 22, fig. 8th.
- ↑ Hingley: Londinium. Pp. 189-192.
- ↑ AE 2002, 00882 ; see. Roger Tomlin: Inscriptions. In: Douglas Killock (Ed.): Temples and Suburbs: Excavations at Tabard Square, Southwark. Pre-construct archeology Limited, London 2015, ISBN 978-0-9926672-5-2 , pp. 192-193.
- ↑ Londontreasures (English, Word document; 49 kB) ( Memento from October 14, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ J. Heachcote: Excavation round-up in 1988, Part 1: City of London. In: The London Archaeologist. 6, 1989, pp. 46-53.
- ^ P. Marsden: "Two Roman public baths in London" . In: Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society. 27, 1976, pp. 1-70.
- ↑ in summary: Milne: The Port of Roman London.
- ↑ Hingley: Londinium. Pp. 128-131.
- ↑ Summary of an excavation in the city center ( Memento from July 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ).
- ^ WF Grimes: Excavations of Roman and Medieval London. London 1968, p. 50.
- ^ Heard, K., Sheldon HL, Thompson, P.: Mapping Roman Southwark . In: Antiquity . 64, 1990, pp. 608-619; Yule: A Prestigious Roman Building. See also online: Southwark, Roman waterfront buildings and industry, assessment and analysis ( Memento of February 8, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Yule: A Prestigious Roman Building. Pp. 69-72.
- ↑ Hingley: Londinium. Pp. 179-182.
- ↑ B. Barber, D. Bowsher, K. Whittaker: Recent excavations in a cemetery of Londinium . In: Britannia. 21, 1990, pp. 1-12. See also: East cemetery ( Memento of October 10, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Perring: Roman London. P. 56, fig. 22nd
- ^ Wilson: A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain. Pp. 604-652.
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 45 " N , 0 ° 5 ′ 26.2" W.