Chardscha

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Pronunciation of the word "Khardscha"

Chardscha ( Arabic خرجة Chardscha , DMG Ḫarǧa  '“Exit, end, punch line”'. Pronunciation: [ 'xardʒa]) refers to the last in the Arabist, hebraistischen and Romanist literature "qufl" , ie the closing verses of Muwaschschah -Gedichtes.

The discovery (Samuel Miklos Stern 1948) of around 70 so-called “Romance” Chardjas in bilingual Muwaschschah poems represented a sensation for Romance linguistics and literary studies, which is still controversially discussed today.

These early Romanesque texts seem to be the oldest evidence of the Spanish language and probably Romanesque poetry in general, because the oldest old Spanish Ḫarǧa is dated to before 1042. Thus, these Romanesque Chardjas are older than the lyrics of the first known trobador , the Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Poitiers, William IX. :

“This type of poetry ( muwashshah ) soon became popular in Islamic Spain. The oldest surviving Romanesque Chardscha is in a Muwaššaḥa, which was built before 1042. This brings us half a century behind the oldest trobador songs , which were composed by William of Aquitaine around 1100. "

- Reinhold Kontzi : Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas)

Like the rest of the Muwashschah text , the “Romanic” Chardjas are written with Semitic characters, that is, in Arabic or Hebrew script, but linguistically partly in Old Spanish. Such a notation is called aljamiado . Old Spanish vocabulary is mixed with Arabic-Andalusian dialect words and hybrid Romance-Arabic new formations to form a kind of macaronic poetry .

To what extent these “Romance” Ḫarǧas are pre-existing Romance folk poetry or whether they were invented by the respective Muwashschah poet is still a matter of dispute among scholars.

The chardscha - a poem within a poem

The Muwaschschah is a type of stanza poem originating from the Moorish al-Ándalus with a fixed rhyme scheme , which is held in Arabic or Hebrew standard language. The Ḫarǧa , the final verse of the last stanza, differs from the linguistic norm of the other lines of the poem. It is either in Arabic-Andalusian colloquial language, in Mozarabic mixed language or - which is rarer - entirely in Old Spanish. This code-switching , the sudden change from one language or language level to another, creates a discontinuity, a break in the overall poem, which gives the chardscha a special place within a muwashshah.

The medieval Egyptian literary theorist Ibn Sana al-Mulk (1155–1211) praises in the foreword (On the Technique of Muwaššaḥ) his Muwaschschah anthology , Dar al-ṭirāz , these peculiar closing verses, the Ḫarǧa , in the highest tones:

“The Ḫarǧa is the highlight of the Muwaššaḥ, its salt, its sugar, its musk, its ambergris; it is the exit and it must be particularly praiseworthy, it is the end, no, rather the introduction, although it is at the end; when I say: the introduction, it means that the poet's mind must be directed towards everything else; he who wants to write a muwaššaḥ must first prepare it before he is bound by meter or rhyme, in a moment when he is free and unbound, happy and carefree. He has found the reason, he has the tail and sits his head on it. "

- Martin Hartmann : The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ

The colloquial or - as in the case of the old Spanish Chardjas - mixed-language or even foreign-language character of the Chardscha gives the poetry a special local color . The Chardscha thus forms a foreign body, it is, so to speak, a poem within a poem , mostly in the form of a plaintive woman's song.

The first lines of the last verse of a Muwaschschah-poem (Arabic Tamheed conduct words of transition) - in Arabic or Hebrew high-level language - the Ḫarǧa one, both topically and by a inquit formula , a (verb dicendi) . A girl in love who turns to her lover or addresses a confidante, the mother, a friend or sister, often speaks: and the girl in love "said / painted / complained / sang" - in the language of the Christians (around the code Initiate switching). The girl is overwhelmed with love, at a loss. It sings of the beauty of the beloved, entices him to love:

"Non t'amaréy, illa kon al-šarti
'an tayma jalja'li ma'a qurti"

"I will love you, but on the condition
that you combine my anklets with my earrings."

Folk songs with the same motif, in which girls in love sing about the longing for their lover, can also be found in old Galician- Portuguese Cantigas de amigo . Therefore, since the discovery (1948) of the old Spanish Chardjas, it has often been assumed that the Arabic and Hebrew poets from al-Ándalus were inspired by independent Romance folk songs when creating their Ḫarǧas . The old Spanish chardscha would therefore be a quoted Romance poem in the oriental poem . This view is taken as authority for the proposition that there was long before the first known Trobadorlyrik of Wilhelm IX. by Poitiers (around 1100) given an independent Romanesque folk poetry on the Iberian Peninsula. The earliest old Spanish Ḫarǧa is dated before 1042. Thus, the Mozarabic Ḫarǧas would not only be the oldest completely preserved texts in Ibero-Roman language forms, but also the earliest evidence of lyric poetry in the Romance language par excellence. The Romance scholar and Aljamiado researcher Reinhold Kontzi represents this Romance origin theory in an essay from 1980 :

“One can now say with certainty that long before the first known troubadour poetry there was a Romance folk poetry on the Iberian Peninsula. … Today you can clearly see connections between the poetry of the Ḫarǧas, the Galician-Portuguese cantigas d'amigo and the Castilian villancicos of the 15th century. Yes, we are allowed to associate the folk poetry that emerges in the Mozarabic Ḫarǧas with the refrains of northern France [ Virelai ] and the Strambotti of Italy. "

- Reinhold Kontzi : Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas)

Difficulty deciphering the Aljamiado verses

The tradition of Andalusian girl songs, the earliest fragments of Romance poetry from the 11th century, did not reach Romance studies until 1948, i.e. 900 years later. The discoverer of these old Spanish Chardschas, the Hungarian Hebraist Samuel Miklos Stern (1920–1969), was interested in the stanza poem type Muwaššaḥ, which is seldom found in oriental literature . In the works of the Arabists Martin Hartmann and Julián Ribera he was made aware of the Muwaschschah anthology Dar al-tiraz by the Arab poet Ibn Sana al-Mulk (1155–1211). In their foreword, a poetics about the technique of Muwaššaḥ , Ibn Sana al-Mulk sets up the theory that the poetry of the Muwashschah was invented in the Moorish al-Ándalus. In addition, some of their Ḫarǧas are even written in the Romance vernacular. So far, however, no Muwashshah manuscript with such Romance Ḫarǧas had been found anywhere. When S. M. Stern, while reading Muwaššaḥas by the medieval Sephardic poet Yehuda ha-Levi, came across enigmatic Ḫarǧas, the consonantic order of which made no sense in Hebrew, he had the idea that this might be the presumed closing verse in Andalusian-Romance colloquial language could act. The oldest Hebrew manuscripts with Muwaschschah poems come from finds that were made in the geniza of the Ben Esra synagogue in Fostat (Old Cairo) at the end of the 19th century .

The decipherment of these Chardjas, which have been handed down in Aljamiado spelling, is associated with particular difficulties. One has to consider that the Romance jarchas have been handed down in Hebrew or Arabic consonant writing. The vowels are missing. In addition, the Muwaschschah manuscripts are copies that do not come from al-Ándalus, but from the Orient. To the oriental copyists, who did not understand Spanish, the Romance Jarchas must have seemed puzzling. In this respect, there were certainly copying errors in the consonant text. That is why the Hebraists, Arabists and Romanists who have tried since 1948 to restore the old Spanish, revocalized text, disagree on the conjectures , emendations and interpretations. Alma Wood Rivera put together a compilation of such different readings in her thesis.

Text example: an old Spanish Chardscha - handed down in the Arabic alphabet

Here as an example a Mozarabic Chardscha from an Arabic Muwaschschaha - love poem N ° 22 by the Andalusian-Arabic poet Muhammad ibn 'Ubada (11th century).

The representation follows the edition of the Spanish Arabist and Romanist Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes.

In a first step (1.), Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes transliterates the Arabic consonant script of the Aljamiado manuscript into the Latin alphabet. In a second step (2.) he revocalizes this consonant sequence , which does not make sense in the Arabic language, in such a way that the transcription allows the original Spanish text to appear again.

1. The transliteration of the Arabic script into the Latin alphabet results in a consonantic sequence that does not make sense in the Arabic language:

bn sydy 'br'hym
y 'nw'mn dig
b'nt myb
dy nht
'n nwn šnwn k'rš
yrym tyb
grmy 'wb
lgrt

2. According to the philological interpretation of the Aljamiado text, the 'meaningless' consonant sequence in the Arabic language is revocalized, and the transcription recovers the following old Spanish text:

Ven çidi Ibrahim,
yá nuemne daggers;
vent a mib
de nojte
in non, si non queres,
ireym 'a tib.
Gárreme a ob
ligarte.

3. Translation into today's Spanish (Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes):

Ven dueño Ibrahim,
¡Oh, nombre dulce!
vente a mí
de noche;
si no, si no quieres
iré yo a ti.
Dime a donde
[puedo] unirme.

4. Translation into German (by the author of this Wikipedia article):

Come my lord Ibrahim,
oh sweet name!
Join me
at night;
if not, if you don't want
I'll go to you
Tell me where
I can unite with you.

Alan Jones translates the tamhid (words of transition), the Arabic verses that precede this old Spanish chardjah and introduce it as follows:

"Many a maiden has continued to complain of someone who is unjust -
Alas for the one who is tied to the rope of someone who is not helpful -
When she has seen him delay the fulfillment of his promise while she is smitten with passion;
She has sung, when the only hope has been to go out to him:
(The kharja then follows). "
- Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic Muwaššaḥ Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis

On the edition history of the old Spanish Chardschas

In 1948, Samuel Miklos Stern published twenty Mozarabic Chardjas, which he recognized as Old Spanish texts in Hebrew Muwashschahas. His essay, written in French in a journal of Spanish Arabists: Al-Andalus XII (1948), pp. 299–346, is entitled:

“Les vers finaux en espagnol dans les Muwaššaḥ s hispano-hébraïques. Une contribution à l'histoire du Muwaššaḥ et à l'étude du vieux dialecte espagnol 'mozarabe'. "
(The Spanish closing verses in the Hispano-Hebrew Muwaššaḥas. A contribution to the history of the Muwaššaḥas and to the study of the old Spanish dialect 'Mozarabic')

This article caused a sensation and triggered an avalanche of publications and controversies in the Arabic and Romance specialist world, which, even after 60 years, have not yet come to an end. In 1977, for example, the British Arabist Richard Hitchcock was able to list over 250 books and articles in his critical bibliography that had dealt with the Ḫarǧa topic since Stern's 1948 essay .

In 1952 the Spanish Arabist Emilio García Gómez (1905-1995), editor of the journal Al-Andalus , published 24 old Spanish Ḫarǧas , which he believed to have discovered in Andalusian-Arabic muwashshahas. He edits them analogously to Samuel M. Stern, d. that is, he transliterates and transcribes the Arabic text into the Latin alphabet and interprets the verses as fragments of an independent Romance poetry.

In 1960 the edition by Klaus Heger appeared : The bisherarǧas published so far and their interpretations , in which he compiled all the reading variants and interpretations of all Jarchas known up to that point.

In 1965 Emilio García Gómez published his book Las jarchas romances de la serie árabe en su marco (German: the Romanesque Ḫarǧas from the Arabic manuscripts in their context), in which he wrote the complete Arabic Muwashschah poems, from which the old Spanish Ḫarǧas originated, transliterated and rewritten in order to be able to interpret them from the overall poetic context and to make them accessible to non-orientalists, especially Romanists.

In 1973 the British Arabist Richard Hitchcock sowed the first doubts about the correctness of the reconstruction of the Ḫarǧas by Emilio García Gómez. A clear interpretation of the consonant sequences in the Aljamiado texts of the Muwaschschahaz is not possible. He advocates the oriental original theory of the bilingual Jarchas, whose Romance sprinkles should only give the Muwaschschahas local color. However, he bases his criticism only on the Arabic manuscripts and leaves aside the clearer Hebrew Aljamiado texts.

In 1977 the critical bibliography by the British Arabist Richard Hitchcock appears.

In 1980 the British Arabist Alan Jones criticized the previous Khardscha interpretations in the same direction as his colleague Hitchcock. He also denies the thesis that the Ḫarǧas followed Romance metrics. Richard Hitchcock calls for a return to the original Arabic manuscripts and urges a critical palaeographic facsimile edition of the "so-called Romance kharjas":

"The long honeymoon period when the original texts have remained seemingly immune from critical scrutiny has now to be brought to an end. [...] Clearly the whole of kharja scholarship stands or falls on the reliability of the available manuscript texts. "

- Richard Hitchcock : The 'Kharjas' as Early Romance Lyrics: A Review

In 1988 Alan Jones published the first paleographically exact edition and analysis of all 42 Romanesque Chardjas discovered in Arabic muwashschahas. It also offers Romanists who are not proficient in Arabic script and language a reliable text-critical working basis.

The first verses of the last stanza of the Muwaschschah poem (Arabic tamhid , words of transition), which introduce the Romance jarcha both thematically and through an inquit formula (verbum dicendi) as a quoted girl's song - in Arabic - are each completely in Facsimile and reproduced in transliteration. The Chardscha sections themselves are then carefully analyzed letter by letter. First, a purely consonant transliteration is carried out, with readings , conjectures and emendations being discussed taking metric criteria into account . Afterwards, possible vocalizations are critically commented, whereby a complete old Spanish text is not always created.

In 1988, for example, the Arabic Aljamiado texts were made available to the public for the first time in facsimiles of the original manuscripts - only forty years after their discovery. Such a palaeographically exact edition and analysis of the Romance jarchas from the Hebrew manuscripts is still a long time coming (2010).

In 1994 the Spanish Romanist and Arabist Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes (p. 30 ff) presented his edition of 28 Jarchas (12 from Arabic and 16 from Hebrew Muwashschahas) in response to the accusations of his British colleagues R. Hitchcock and A. Jones referred to as "perfect or almost perfect".

In 1996 a supplement to Richard Hitchcock's critical bibliography was published (two parts): Part I. Books and articles in European languages and Part II. Books and articles in Arabic. The authors are Richard Hitchcock and Consuelo López-Morillas: The Kharjas: A critical bibliography. Supplement N ° 1. (see web links)

In 1998, the Spanish Arabist Federico Corriente edited the complete corpus of all 68 old Spanish Chardjas known so far: 42 from Arabic and 26 from Hebrew Muwashschahas.

In 2004, Henk Heijkoop and Otto Zwartjes published an extensive bibliography on the topics of Muwaššaḥ , Zagal and Ḫarǧa - with almost 3,000 relevant titles.

On the allegation of text manipulation in the Chardscha editions of Emilio García Gómez '

In his 1988 paleographic analysis of the Romanesque Chardjas, Alan Jones charged Emilio García Gómez with text manipulation:

“Not one transcription [in Emilio García Gómez: Venticuatro jarchas , 1952] is completely accurate. In some cases, to be fair, the deviations concern only minor matters of vocalization, but in others the errors are serious. [...] All who have relied on them have been perforce misled. "

- Alan Jones : Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic Muwassah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis

At the old age of 86, don Emilio García Gómez himself replied with a hundred-page polemic: El escándalo de las jarchas en Oxford to the sharp accusations of Alan Jones and tried to refute them on all points - arguing the matter.

Otto Zwartjes also finds Jones' sharp criticism of the work and " ad hominem " of the Jarcha pioneer exaggerated, especially since Emilio García Gómez himself always emphasized the provisional character of his Chardscha editions in his writings.

“When I re-read the versions in the Arabic characters of García Gómez, comparing the Romance kharjas with the versions in the new edition of Jones, I came to the conclusion that the work done by García Gómez was not as bad as Jones claims. [...] Jones' criticism is mainly based on the vocalization and interpretation of the texts. "
- Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula)

On the debate about the question of origin : Romanesque folk poetry or Arabic art poetry?

The question of whether the Chardjas really go back to a Romance folk lyric has by no means been decided to this day (2010).

For the Romansh original thesis, on the one hand, the motifs related to the Jarchas and the Cantigas de amigo , which suggests an Ibero- Romance line of tradition. On the other hand, oriental lyric poetry does not know such women's songs in which girls in love express their love:

[...] "el tema de la canción de la doncella amante es ignorado por la tradición islámica, que considera estas canciones de doncella características de los ' ajam (no árabes), según el testimonio preciso del escritor tunecino Ibn Rasiq, del siglo XI. "
“The literary motif of the women's song is unknown to Islamic tradition. According to a relevant testimony by the Tunisian writer Ibn Rasiq, 11th century, songs by girls in love are a typical theme of non-Arabic poetry. "
- Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes y la tradición lírica romanica

This is the opinion of Stacey L. Parker Aronson:

"What surprises many readers who possess preconceived notions about Muslim women and their place within Muslim society is the candor with which female desire is expressed in the jarchas."

- Stacey L. Parker Aronson : Sexual Violence in Las Jarchas

The British Arabists Richard Hitchcock and Alan Jones, on the other hand, propose the hypothesis of an Arab origin and argue that, according to their investigations, the Chardjas follow the Arabic metric and not, as previously assumed, the Romance metric. Richard Hitchcock even advocates a radical Arabic theory of origin: the Chardjas are not written in Old Spanish at all, but in Andalusian Vulgar Arabic with lots of Romance sprinkles.

The Spanish Romanist and Arabist Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes, on the other hand, maintains the opinion that the Jarchas are very much fragments of an independent Romance love poetry. He accuses the representatives of the Arab theory of origin to neglect the Hebrew text witnesses. The fact that Romansh jarchas are found in very similar variants in Arabic and Hebrew muwashschahas can only be explained by the assumption that they are based on preexisting old Spanish song verses that have been handed down to us in this cryptic way and that are in the same tradition as the Galician- Portuguese Cantigas de amigo and Old Spanish Villancicos . The Chardschas are the oldest fragments of Romanesque poetry ever, older than the artful trobador poetry of Occitan France and the songs of the "first troubadour" William of Aquitaine (around 1100).

Old Dutch Chardcha

In 2006, based on structural parallels , Peter Dronke and Frits van Oostrom established the hypothesis that the old Dutch song verse Hebban olla vogala , which was discovered in 1933 in Kent , England and is considered the oldest evidence of Dutch literature , is also a girl's song in the sense of a Chardscha verse and to be assigned to a female voice accordingly.

See also

Cantiga de amigo

literature

  • Dámaso Alonso: Cancioncillas de amigo mozárabes. Primavera temprana de la lírica europea . In: Revista de Filología Española 33 (1949), pp. 297-349.
  • Samuel G. Armistead: Some Recent Developments in kharja Scholarship . In: La Corónica (Spring 1980), pp. 199–203 (Supplement to Hitchcock's The Kharjas. A Critical Bibliography )
  • Samuel G. Armistead: A Brief History of Kharja Studies . In: Hispania, Vol. 70, No. 1 (Mar., 1987), pp. 8-15, excerpt from jstor.org
  • Francisco Cantera: Versos españoles en las muwassahas hispanico-hebreas . In: Sefarad (revista de estudios hebraicos, sefardíes y de Oriente próximo) IX (1949), pp. 197-234.
  • Federico Corriente: Poesía dialectal árabe y romance en Alandalus: cejeles y xarajat de muwassahat. Madrid: Gredos 1998, ISBN 978-84-249-1887-3 .
  • Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes. Forma y significado . Crítica, Barcelona 1994, ISBN 84-7423-667-3 .
  • Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes y la tradición lírica romanica. In: Pedro M. Piñero Ramírez (ed.): Lírica popular, lírica tradicional: lecciones en homenaje a Don Emilio García Gómez. Universidad de Sevilla 1998, ISBN 84-472-0434-0 , p. 28–53 Excerpt from the Google book search
  • Emilio Gracía Gómez: Veinticuatro jaryas romances en muwassahas árabes. In: Al-Andalus XVII (1952) pp. 57-127
  • Emilio García Gómez: Las jarchas de la serie árabe en su marco , Madrid 1965.
  • Klaus Heger : The Ḫarǧas published so far and their interpretations , Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 1960.
  • Henk Heijkoop and Otto Zwartjes: Muwaššaḥ, Zajal, Kharja. Bibliography of Strophic Poetry and Music from al-Ándalus and Their Influence in East and West , Leiden: Brill, 2004, ISBN 90-04-13822-6 , excerpt from Google book search
  • Martin Hartmann: The Arabic verse poem, I. The Muwaššaḥ. Supplementary booklets to the journal for Assyriology. Semitic Studies Issue 13/14, Weimar 1897, ISBN 90-6022-713-1
  • Richard Hitchcock: Some Doubts about the Reconstruction of the Kharjas . In: Bulletin of Hispanic Studies Volume 50, Number 2, 1973, pp. 109-119.
  • Richard Hitchcock: The Kharjas. A Critical Bibliography , London: Grant and Cutler, 1977, ISBN 0-7293-0043-9 .
  • Richard Hitchcock: The fate of the Kharjas: a survey of recent publications . In: British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies . Volume 12, Number 2 1985, pp. 172-190.
  • Richard Hitchcock and Consuelo López-Morillas: The Kharjas: A critical bibliography. Supplement N ° 1 , Grant and Cutler: London 1996, ISBN 978-0-7293-0389-7 , excerpt from Google book search
  • Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic Muwaššaḥ Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis . Ithaca London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 .
  • Reinhold Kontzi : Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas) . In: Romania cantat. Dedicated to Gerhard Rohlfs on the occasion of his 85th birthday. Volume II Interpretations. Tübingen: Narr 1980, ISBN 3-87808-509-5 , pp. 305-318 in the Google book search.
  • Consuelo López-Morillas: Las jarchas romances y la crítica árabe moderna. In: Actas del VIII Congreso de la Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas (AIH VIII, 1983). Full text (PDF; 435 kB) on cvc.cervantes.es
  • James T. Monroe and David Swiatlo: Ninety-three Arabic Ḫarǧas in Hebrew muwassahs: their Hispano-Romance prosody and thematic features. In: Journal of the American Oriental Society, 97, [1977], pp. 141-170
  • Josep Maria Solà-Solé: Corpus de poesía mozárabe. Las Ḫarǧa-s andalusíes , Barcelona: Ediciones Hispam, 1973, ISBN 978-84-306-0173-8
  • Josep Maria Solà-Solé: Las jarchas romances y sus moaxajas. Taurus: Madrid 1990, ISBN 978-84-306-0173-8
  • Soto Aranda: Ideología y traducción: algunas consideraciones acerca de la traducción de las jarchas . In: Centro de Estudios Superiores Felipe Segundo (CES Felipe II), Revista Enlaces, number 5, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) June 2006, ISSN  1695-8543 , full text (PDF; 187 kB)
  • Samuel Miklos Stern: Les vers finaux en espagnol dans les muwassahs hispano-hébraïques. Une contribution à l'histoire du muwassah et à l'étude du vieux dialecte espagnol 'mozarabe' . In: Al-Andalus Revista de las escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada, XII (1948), pp. 299–346.
  • Samuel Miklos Stern: Les chansons mozarabes. Les vers finaux en espagnol ('kharjas') dans les 'muwassahas' arabes et hébreux. Palermo 1953; 2nd edition Oxford 1964.
  • Yasemin Soytemel: Mozarabic Jarchas. Love poems from Islamic Andalusia of the 11th and 12th centuries . In: Tranvia. Review of the Iberian Peninsula, 2001, No. 63, pp. 28–29
  • Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula) , Leiden: Brill 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10694-9 , excerpts in the Google book search.

Web links

  • Bibliographies on Themaarǧas :
    • Bibliography from the diploma thesis by Alma Wood Rivera, 1969 - full text
    • Richard Hitchcock and Consuelo López-Morillas: The Kharjas: A critical bibliography. Supplement N ° 1 , Grant and Cutler: London 1996, ISBN 978-0-7293-0389-7 , excerpt from Google book search
    • Henk Heijkoop and Otto Zwartjes: Muwaššaḥ, Zajal, Kharja. Bibliography of Strophic Poetry and Music from al-Ándalus and Their Influence in East and West , Leiden: Brill, 2004, ISBN 90-04-13822-6 , excerpt from Google book search - with almost 3,000 relevant titles
  • Bibliography on medieval Iberoroman poetry
  • For the Hebrew manuscripts in the Geniza of the Cairo Ben Esra Synagogue, see also Cairo Geniza

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Spanish jarcha ['xartʃa], English kharja , French khardja . The Arabic plural is ḫaraǧat , an Arabic synonym for Ḫarǧa is markaz .
  2. ^ Samuel Miklos Stern: Les vers finaux en espagnol dans les Muwaššaḥs hispano-hébraïques. A contribution à l'histoire du Muwaššaḥ et à l'étude du vieux dialecte espagnol «mozarabe» . In: Al-Andalus Revista de las escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada, XII (1948), pp. 330-332. Full text of the earliest Ḫarǧa of this oldest Jarcha (N ° 18 after star), dated approx. 1024, on jarchas.net .
  3. ↑ a b Samuel Miklos Stern: Les vers finaux en espagnol dans les Muwaššaḥ s hispano-hébraïques. Une contribution à l'histoire du Muwaššaḥ et à l'étude du vieux dialecte espagnol 'mozarabe' . In: Al-Andalus Revista de las escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada, XII (1948), pp. 330-332. Here is the full text of this oldest Jarcha (N ° 18 after star) on jarchas.net .
  4. ↑ Reinhold Kontzi: Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas) . In: Romania cantat. Dedicated to Gerhard Rohlfs on the occasion of his 85th birthday . Volume II Interpretations. Narr, Tübingen 1980, ISBN 3-87808-509-5 , p. 308: p. 308 in the Google book search.
  5. ^ A b Emilio García Gómez: Estudio del 'Dār aṭ -ṭirāz'. Preceptiva egipcia de la Muwaššaḥa . In: Al-Andalus ( ISSN  0304-4335 ), Vol. 27, Nº 1, 1962, pp. 21-104
  6. ↑ Martin Hartmann: The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ. Supplementary booklets to the journal for Assyriology. Semitic Studies Issue 13/14, Weimar 1897, ISBN 90-6022-713-1 , pp. 101-102
  7. ^ Theodor Frings: Old Spanish girl songs from the Minnesang spring. In: Contributions to the history of the German language and literature . Volume 1951, Issue 73, Pages 176-196, ISSN  1865-9373 , doi: 10.1515 / bgsl.1951.1951.73.176 .
  8. ↑ Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula) , Leiden: Brill 1997, ISBN 978-90-04-10694-9 , limited preview in the Google book search
  9. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas , 1988 p. 88. - Alma Wood Rivera: Las jarchas mozárabes: Una compilación de lecturas , Monterrey (México) 1969 - Jarcha n ° 31
  10. ↑ Reinhold Kontzi: Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas). In: Romania cantat. Dedicated to Gerhard Rohlfs on the occasion of his 85th birthday. Volume II Interpretations. Tübingen: Narr 1980, ISBN 3-87808-509-5 , pp. 305-318
  11. ^ Martin Hartmann : Das Muwaššaḥ, the Arabic verse poem. In addition: meter and rhythm, the origin of the Arabic meter. (Neudr. D. Edition Weimar 1897 and Giessen 1896) 1981, ISBN 9060227131 .
  12. ^ Samuel Miklos Stern: Les vers finaux en espagnol dans les Muwaššaḥs hispano-hébraïques. Une contribution à l'histoire du Muwaššaḥ et à l'étude du vieux dialecte espagnol 'mozarabe'. In: Al-Andalus Revista de las escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada, XII (1948), pp. 299–346.
  13. ↑ a b Contributions to the long overdue paleographic analysis of all Hebrew manuscripts with Romance Ḫarǧas are made by Yosef Yahalom and Isaac Benabu: The Importance of the Geniza Manuscripts for the Establishment of the Text of the Hispano-Romance Kharjas in Hebrew Characters. In: Romance Philology, 40/2 (1986), pp. 139-158
  14. ↑ Alma Wood Rivera: Las jarchas mozárabes: Una compilación de lecturas. Diploma thesis, Monterrey (México) 1969. 55 Romance Ḫarǧas in full text : Compilation of different readings: consonant transliteration, revocalized transcription, translations into modern Spanish, English, French and German.
  15. ↑ Alma Wood Rivera: Las jarchas mozárabes: Una compilación de lecturas. Diploma thesis 1969. Jarcha No. 23 at: jarchas.net - The Ḫarǧa No. 23 forms the starting chorus of a Muwaššaḥ love poem by the Arab-Andalusian poet Muhammad ibn 'Ubada.
  16. ↑ Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes. Forma y significado. Barcelona: Crítica, 1994, ISBN 84-7423-667-3 , p. 31 and p. 187.
  17. ↑ A linguistic and literary interpretation of this Ḫarǧa can be found in Reinhold Kontzi: Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas) . In: Romania cantat. Dedicated to Gerhard Rohlfs on the occasion of his 85th birthday. Volume II Interpretations. Tübingen: Narr 1980, ISBN 3-87808-509-5 , pp. 305-318 in the Google book search.
  18. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis. Ithaca London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 , p. 27.
  19. ^ A b Richard Hitchcock: The Kharjas. A Critical Bibliography , London: Grant and Cutler, 1977, ISBN 0-7293-0043-9
  20. ↑ Emilio Gómez Gracía: Veinticuatro jaryas romances en Muwaššaḥas árabes. In: Al-Andalus XVII (1952) pp. 57-127.
  21. ^ Richard Hitchcock: Some doubts about the reconstruction of the kharjas. In: Bulletin of Hispanic Studies. 50, pp. 109-119 (1973).
  22. ^ A b Alan Jones: Romance Scansion and the Muwaššaḥāt: An Emperor's New Clothes? In: Journal of Arabic Literature. 11: 36-55 (1980).
  23. ↑ Richard Hitchcock: The 'Kharjas' as Early Romance Lyrics: A Review. In: The Modern Language Review. Volume 75, No. 3 (July 1980), pp. 481-491.
  24. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis. Ithaca London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 .
  25. ↑ on this problem of the different readings of the Romance Jarchas see also: Beatriz Soto Aranda: Ideología y traducción: algunas consideraciones acerca de la traducción de las jarchas. In: Centro de Estudios Superiores Felipe Segundo (CES Felipe II), Revista Enlaces, number 5, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) June 2006, ISSN  1695-8543 , full text (PDF; 187 kB)
  26. ↑ Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes. Forma y significado. Barcelona: Crítica, 1994, ISBN 84-7423-667-3 , p. 30 ff.
  27. ↑ Beatriz Soto Aranda criticizes the use of such adjectives as “perfect” or “final”: “[…] la palabra definitivo / a debe proscribirse del vocabulario de la crítica textual” (The word final (perfect) must be deleted from the vocabulary of the textual criticism - Beatriz Soto Aranda: Ideología y traducción: algunas consideraciones acerca de la traducción de las jarchas . In: Centro de Estudios Superiores Felipe Segundo (CES Felipe II), Revista Enlaces, number 5, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM) June 2006, ISSN  1695-8543 , p. 11 full text (PDF; 187 kB)
  28. ^ Federico Corriente: Poesía dialectal arabe y romance en el Andalus. Gredos Madrid 1998, ISBN 84-249-1887-8 .
  29. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis. Ithaca (Oxford University) London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 , p. 6.
  30. ^ Emilio García Gómez El escándalo de las jarchas in Oxford. In: Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia. ISSN  0034-0626 , Tomo CLXXXVIII (188), Cuaderno 1, 1991, pp. 1–104, ( limited preview in the Google book search)
  31. ↑ Emilio Gómez Gracía: Veinticuatro jaryas romances en muwassahas árabes. In: Al-Andalus XVII (1952) p. 61: “Jamás he dado a la imprenta unas páginas mías con espíritu más modesto ni con mayor conciencia de su carácter provisional ” and Emilio García Gómez: Las jarchas de la serie árabe en su marco . Madrid 1965.
  32. ↑ Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula). Brill, Leiden 1997, ISBN 90-04-10694-4 , p. 75 - limited preview in the Google book search
  33. ↑ see the polemical “Kharja Debate” ( limited preview in the Google book search), Ḫarǧa Debate, in articles in the magazine La Corónica (from 1980) and Richard Hitchcock's article: The 'Kharjas' as Early Romance Lyrics: A review. In: The Modern Language Review, Vol. 75, No. 3 (July 1980), pp. 481-491 abstract on jstor.org
  34. ↑ Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes y la tradición lírica romanica. In: Pedro M. Piñero Ramírez (ed.): Lírica popular, lírica tradicional: lecciones en homenaje a Don Emilio García Gómez. Universidad de Sevilla 1998, ISBN 84-472-0434-0 , pp. 50-51 in the Google book search
  35. ↑ Stacey L. Parker Aronson: Sexual Violence in Las Jarchas in: Working Paper Series. Volume 4, Number 1, 2009 Faculty Research, University of Minnesota, Morris - full text ( Memento of the original dated February 6, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 811 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.morris.umn.edu
  36. ↑ See also: James Monroe: Pedir peras al olmo? In: La Corónica, 10 (1982), pp. 121-147.
  37. ↑ Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes y la tradición lírica romanica. In: Pedro M. Piñero Ramírez (ed.): Lírica popular, lírica tradicional: lecciones en homenaje a Don Emilio García Gómez. Universidad de Sevilla 1998, ISBN 84-472-0434-0 , p. 28–53 Excerpt from the Google book search
  38. ↑ Cf. u. a. Frits van Oostrom: Stemmen op script. Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse literatuur vanaf het begin dead 1300. Bert Bakker, Amsterdam 2006.